The Watchtower society's commentary on Paul's epistle to the Hebrews.

HEBREWS, LETTER TO THE.

An inspired letter of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Evidence indicates that it was written by the apostle Paul to the Hebrew Christians In Judea about 61 C.E. To those Hebrew Christians the letter was most timely. It had then been about twenty-eight years since Jesus Christ’s death and resurrection. In the earlier part of that period severe persecution had been brought upon these Jewish Christians in Jerusalem and Judea by the Jewish religious leaders, resulting in the death of some Christians and the scattering of most of the others from Jerusalem. (Acts 8:1) The scattered ones remained active in spreading the good news everywhere they went. (Acts 8:4) The apostles had stayed in Jerusalem and had held the remaining congregation together there, and it had grown, even under stiff opposition. (Acts 8:14) Then, for a time, the congregation entered into a period of peace. (Acts 9:31) Later, Herod Agrippa I caused the death of the apostle James, John’s brother, and mistreated others of the congregation. (Acts 12:1-5) Sometime after this there developed a material need among the Christians in Judea, giving opportunity for those in Achaia and Macedonia (in about 55 C.E.) to demonstrate their love and unity by sending aid. (1 Cor. 16:1-3; 2 Cor. 9:1-5) So the Jerusalem congregation had suffered many hardships.An inspired letter of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Evidence indicates that it was written by the apostle Paul to the Hebrew Christians In Judea about 61 C.E. To those Hebrew Christians the letter was most timely. It had then been about twenty-eight years since Jesus Christ’s death and resurrection. In the earlier part of that period severe persecution had been brought upon these Jewish Christians in Jerusalem and Judea by the Jewish religious leaders, resulting in the death of some Christians and the scattering of most of the others from Jerusalem. (Acts 8:1) The scattered ones remained active in spreading the good news everywhere they went. (Acts 8:4) The apostles had stayed in Jerusalem and had held the remaining congregation together there, and it had grown, even under stiff opposition. (Acts 8:14) Then, for a time, the congregation entered into a period of peace. (Acts 9:31) Later, Herod Agrippa I caused the death of the apostle James, John’s brother, and mistreated others of the congregation. (Acts 12:1-5) Sometime after this there developed a material need among the Christians in Judea, giving opportunity for those in Achaia and Macedonia (in about 55 C.E.) to demonstrate their love and unity by sending aid. (1 Cor. 16:1-3; 2 Cor. 9:1-5) So the Jerusalem congregation had suffered many hardships. 

PURPOSE OF THE LETTER 

The congregation in Jerusalem was comprised almost entirely of Jews and those who had been proselytes to the Jews’ religion. Many of these had come to a knowledge of the truth since the time of the most bitter persecution. At the time the letter to the Hebrews was written the congregation was enjoying comparative peace, for Paul told them: “You have never yet resisted as far as blood.” (Heb. 12:4) Nevertheless, the lessening of outright physical persecution to death did not mean that strong opposition from the Jewish religious leaders had ceased. The newer members of the congregation had to face the opposition just as did the rest. And some others were immature, not having made the progress toward maturity that they should have made in view of the time.—Heb. 5:12.

That the letter to the Hebrews was inspired by Jehovah’s spirit is clearly evident. The immature Hebrew Christians in Jerusalem and Judea seriously needed counsel, and all in the congregation needed encouragement. Time was running out for Jerusalem. The situation would call for alertness and faith on the part of the Christians there to obey Jesus’ warning to flee from the city when they should see Jerusalem surrounded by encamped armies. (Luke 21:20-22) According to tradition, this took place in 66 C.E. when Cestius Gallus’ troops withdrew after beginning an attack on the city. Then, in 70 C.E., Jerusalem and its temple would be razed to the ground by the Roman general Titus. Every member of the Christian congregation, and especially the immature ones, would have to strengthen themselves for these momentous events. The opposition they faced daily from the Jews put their faith to a test. They needed to build up the quality of endurance.—Heb. 12:1, 2. 

Jewish opposition 

The Jewish religious leaders, by lying propaganda, had done everything they could to stir up hatred. Their determination to fight Christianity with every possible weapon is demonstrated by their actions, as recorded in Acts 22:22; 23:12-15, 23, 24; 24:1-4; 25:1-3. They and their supporters constantly harassed the Christians, evidently using arguments in an effort to break their loyalty to Christ. They attacked Christianity with what might seem to be powerful reasoning to a Jew, and hard to answer.

At that time Judaism had much to offer in the way of tangible, material things and outward appearance. These things, the Jews might say, proved Judaism superior and Christianity foolish. Why, said they to Jesus, as their father the nation had Abraham, to whom the promises were given. (John 8:33, 39) Moses, to whom God spoke “mouth to mouth,” was God’s great servant and prophet. (Num. 12:7, 8) The Jews had the Law and the words of the prophets from the beginning. Did not this very antiquity establish Judaism as the true religion? they might ask. At the inaugurating of the Law covenant God had spoken by means of angels; in fact, the Law was transmitted through angels by the hand of the mediator Moses. (Acts 7:53; Gal. 3:19) On this occasion God had given a fear-inspiring demonstration of power in shaking Mount Sinai; the loud sound of a horn, smoke, thunder and lightning accompanied the glorious display.—Ex. 19:16-19; 20:18; Heb. 12:18-21.

Besides all these things of antiquity, there stood the magnificent temple with its priesthood instituted by Jehovah, carrying on their duties daily with many sacrifices. Accompanying these things were the richness of the priestly garments and the splendor of the services conducted at the temple. ‘Had not Jehovah commanded that sacrifices for sin be brought to the sanctuary, and did not the high priest, the descendant of Moses’ own brother Aaron, enter the Most Holy on the Day of Atonement with a sacrifice for the sins of the whole nation? On this occasion, did he not approach representatively into the very presence of God?, the Jews might argue. (Lev. chap. 16) ‘Furthermore, was not the kingdom the possession of the Jews, with one (the Messiah, who would later come, as they said) to sit on the throne at Jerusalem to rule?’

If the letter to the Hebrews was being written to equip the Christians to answer objections that were actually being raised by the Jews, then those enemies of Christianity had contended in this way: What did this new “heresy” have to point to as evidence of its genuineness and of God’s favor? Where was their temple and their priesthood? In fact, where was their leader? Was he of any importance among the leaders of the nation during his lifetime—this Jesus, a Galilean, a carpenter’s son, with no rabbinical education? And did he not die an ignominious death? Where was his kingdom? And who were his apostles and followers? Mere fishermen and tax collectors. Furthermore, whom did Christianity draw, for the most part? The poor and lowly persons of the earth and, even worse, uncircumcised Gentiles, not of the seed of Abraham, were accepted. Why should anyone put his trust in this Jesus Christ, who had been put to death as a blasphemer and a seditionist? Why listen to his disciples, men unlettered and ordinary?—Acts 4:13. 

The superiority of the Christian system of things 

ome of the immature Christians may have become neglectful of their salvation through Christ. (Heb. 2:1-4) Or, they may have been swayed by the unbelieving Jews who surrounded them. Coming to their aid with masterful argument, using the Hebrew Scriptures, on which the Jews claimed to rely, the apostle shows irrefutably the superiority of the Christian system of things and of the priesthood and kingship of Jesus Christ. He Scripturally demonstrates that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, greater than angels (1:4-6), than Abraham (7:1-7), than Moses (3:1-6) and the prophets. (1:1, 2) In fact, Christ is the appointed heir of all things, crowned with glory and honor and appointed over the works of Jehovah’s hands.—1:2; 2:7-9.

As to priesthood, Christ’s is far superior to the Aaronic priesthood of the tribe of Levi. It is dependent, not on inheritance from sinful flesh, but on an oath of God. (Heb. 6:13-20; 7:5-17, 20-28) Why, though, did he endure such hardships and die a death of suffering? This was foretold as essential to mankind’s salvation and to qualify him as High Priest and the one to whom God will subject all things. (2:8-10; 9:27, 28; compare Isaiah 53:12.) He had to become blood and flesh and die in order to emancipate all those who through fear of death were in slavery. Through his death he is able to bring to nothing the Devil, a thing no human priest could do. (2:14-16) He, having so suffered, is a High Priest who can sympathize with our weaknesses and can come to our help, having been tested in all respects.—2:17, 18; 4:15.

Moreover, argues the apostle, this High Priest “passed through the heavens” and appeared in the very presence of God, not in a mere earthly tent or building that was only pictorial of heavenly things. (Heb. 4:14; 8:1; 9:9, 10, 24) He needed to appear only once with his perfect, sinless sacrifice, not over and over again. (7:26-28; 9:25-28) He has no successors, as did the Aaronic priests, but lives forever to save completely those to whom he ministers. (7:15-17, 23-25) Christ is Mediator of the better covenant foretold through Jeremiah, under which sins can really be forgiven, and consciences made clean, things that the Law could never accomplish. The “Ten Words,” the basic laws of the Law covenant, were written on stone; the law of the new covenant on hearts. This prophetic word of Jehovah by Jeremiah made the Law covenant obsolete, to vanish away in time.—8:6-13; Jer. 31:31-34; Deut. 4:13; 10:4. It is true, the writer of Hebrews continues, that an awesome display of power was manifested at Sinai, demonstrating God’s approval of the Law covenant. But even more forcefully God bore witness at the inauguration of the new covenant with signs, portents and powerful works, along with distributions of holy spirit to all the members of the congregation assembled. (Heb. 2:2-4; compare Acts 2:1-4.) And as to Christ’s kingship, his throne is in the heavens itself, far higher than that of the kings of the line of David who sat on the throne in earthly Jerusalem. (1:9) God is the foundation of Christ’s throne and his kingdom cannot be shaken, as was the kingdom in Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. (1:8; 12:28) Furthermore, God has gathered his people before something far more awe-inspiring than the miraculous display at Mount Sinai. He has caused anointed Christians to approach the heavenly Mount Zion, and will yet shake, not only the earth, but also the heaven.—12:18:27.

The letter to the Hebrews is of inestimable value to Christians and a strong encouragement to faith, hope, love and endurance. Without the letter, many of the realities concerning Christ as foreshadowed by the Law would be unclear. For example, the Jews had known all along from the Hebrew Scriptures that when their high priest went into the Most Holy compartment of the sanctuary in their behalf he was representing them before Jehovah. But they never appreciated this reality: that someday the real High Priest would actually appear in the heavens in Jehovah’s very presence! And as we read the Hebrew Scriptures, how could we realize the tremendous significance of the account of Abraham’s meeting with Melchizedek, or know so clearly what this king-priest typified? This, of course, is to cite only two examples out of the many realities that we come to visualize in reading the letter.

The faith that the letter builds helps Christians to hold onto their hope by means of “the evident demonstration of realities though not beheld,” and to keep looking to the “better place, that is, one belonging to heaven.” (Heb. 11:1, 16) At a time when many persons rely on antiquity, the material wealth and power of organizations and the splendor of rites and ceremonies and look to the wisdom of this world instead of to God, the divinely inspired letter to the Hebrews admirably helps to make the man of God “fully competent, completely equipped for every good work.”—2 Tim. 3:16, 17. 

WRITERSHIP AND TIME, PLACE WRITTEN 

Writership of the letter to the Hebrews is widely ascribed to the apostle Paul. It was accepted as an epistle of Paul by some early writers, among them Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215 C.E.) and Origen (c. 185-254 C.E.). The Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 2 (P46) (of the early third century C.E.) contains Hebrews among nine of Paul’s letters, and it is listed among “fourteen letters of Paul the apostle” in “The Canon of Athanasius,” of the fourth century C.E.

The writer of Hebrews does not identify himself by name. Even though all his other letters do bear his name, this lack of identification of the writer would obviously not rule out Paul. Internal evidence in the letter strongly points to Paul as its writer, and the place of writing as Italy, probably Rome. (Heb. 13:24) It was in Rome during the years 59 to 61 C.E. that Paul was first imprisoned. Timothy was with Paul in Rome, being mentioned in the apostle’s letters to the Philippians, the Colossians and Philemon, written from Rome during that imprisonment. (Phil. 1:1; 2:19; Col. 1:1, 2; Philem. 1:1) This circumstance fits the remark at Hebrews 13:23 about Timothy’s release from prison and the writer’s desire to visit Jerusalem soon.

The time of writing was before the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., for the temple at Jerusalem still stood, with services being performed there, as is evident from the argument in the letter. And Paul’s remark about Timothy’s being released reasonably fixes the time of writing about nine years earlier, namely, 61 C.E., when it is thought that Paul himself was released from his first imprisonment. 

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS 

Christ’s superior position (1:1–3:6)

A. Is heir of all things and the one through whom God made the systems of things (1:1, 2)

B. Is better than angels (1:3-14)

1. In being the Son of God (1:3-7)

2. As God’s King forever (1:8-12)

3. By exaltation to God’s right hand; angels only servants (1:13, 14)

C. We should pay unusual attention to things spoken by God through Christ (2:1-18)

1. Retribution cannot be escaped if we neglect salvation spoken through him and borne witness to by God (2:1-4)

2. Inhabited earth to come will be subjected to Christ, who, though made temporarily lower than angels, is now exalted for having tasted death for every man (2:5-9)

3. He is God’s Chief Agent of salvation (2:10-18)

a. He had to become blood and flesh, then die, in order to bring Devil to nothing and emancipate “all those who for fear of death were subject to slavery”

b. Not helping angels, spirits, but helping Abraham’s seed, who were blood and flesh

D. Christ, as Son over God’s house, is greater than Moses, who was merely faithful attendant (3:1-6)

II. Entering God’s rest possible at this time (3:7–4:13)

A. Israelites’ unfaithfulness in wilderness, failure to enter God’s rest, a warning to Christians (3:7–4:5)

B. Rest into which Joshua led Israel not the real ‘rest of God’; exercise of obedience needed to enter into sabbath resting that remains now for people of God (4:6-9)

C. Christian must rest from own (self) works, realizing God’s word discerns “thoughts and intentions of the heart” (4:10-13)

III. Superiority of Christ’s priesthood (4:14–7:28)

A. Christ is God-appointed, tested, compassionate High Priest “according to the manner of Melchizedek”; has “passed through the heavens” (4:14–6:3)

1. We should hold onto our confessing of him and approach with freeness of speech to the throne to obtain mercy (4:14–5:3)

2. Christ did not glorify or appoint himself; offered supplications to God, was heard for his godly fear (5:4-7)

3. Learned obedience through suffering, became responsible for salvation of obedient ones (5:8–6:3)

a. Therefore, immature ones must press on to maturity

b. Train perceptive powers to distinguish right and wrong

c. Progress from primary doctrine to learn deeper things about Christ B. Those falling away impale Christ afresh, cannot be revived to repentance; hence, all are urged to continue showing industriousness and imitating faithful, patient ones (6:4-12)

C. Heirs of God’s promise to Abraham who continue to trust in Christ’s priesthood have an assured hope (6:13-20)

1. God’s promise and His oath are two unchangeable things in which it is impossible for God to lie (6:13-18)

2. Jesus’ entry as forerunner “within the curtain” provides heirs of promise the assurance of realizing that hope (6:19, 20)

D. Christ greater than Abraham; Jesus’ priesthood superior to Levitical priesthood (7:1-28)

1. Like that of King-Priest Melchizedek, who blessed Abraham and to whom Abraham (and thus yet-unborn Levi) paid tithes (7:1-10)

2. Perfection not through imperfect Levitical priesthood; change of priesthood was needed, also change of law (7:11-28)

a. Christ of tribe of Judah, not Levi

b. Christ’s priesthood not dependent on fleshly descent; he has indestructible life

c. He has no successors, is able to save completely all those approaching God through him

d. Sinful Levitical priests offered sacrifices for their own sins and those of people daily; sinless Christ offered himself up once; is perfected in office forever

IV. Superiority of new covenant (8:1–10:39)

A. Mediator and High Priest sits at God’s right hand in heavens, in “true tent” put up by Jehovah (8:1-3)

B. Sacred service rendered according to Law only typical of heavenly things (8:4-6)

C. New covenant foretold through Jeremiah (8:7-13; Jer. 31:31-34)

1. By it God’s laws are put in mind and written in heart (8:7-12)

2. God’s declared purpose makes former covenant become obsolete 

 “near to vanishing away” (8:13) 

D. Sacred tent and its services and sacrifices under former covenant were shadow and illustration of time now here (9:1–10:18)

1. Description of earthly tent, with furnishings, utensils (9:1-5)

2 High priest alone took blood into second compartment once a year (9:6-10)

a. Holy spirit thereby showed way into holy place not then manifest

b. Sacrifices made could not make men perfect as respects conscience

3. Christ entered into greater “tent” once with own blood, obtaining everlasting deliverance and cleansing consciences of believers (9:11-14)

4. Law covenant inaugurated with animal blood; new covenant validated by blood of Christ (9:15-22)

5. Christ entered heaven itself, appeared before God (9:23-28)

a. By one sacrifice put sin away once for all time

b. Will appear second time for judgment and for salvation of believers

6. Animal sacrifices ineffectual; prophecy foretold that God’s will was to abolish them and establish real sacrifice through Christ (10:1-10; Ps. 40:6-8)

7. After Christ’s one sacrifice, sat down at God’s right hand until time for enemies to be made footstool (10:11-18) 

E. By this new and living way of entry may approach God by means of great High Priest with true hearts, clean consciences (10:19-39)

1. Hold fast to public declaration of faith (10:23)

2. Gather together, encouraging one another (10:24, 25)

3. Avoid falling into willful practice of sin, which brings destruction (10:26-31)

4. Endure by faith; do not shrink back to destruction (10:32-39)

V. Faith essential to please God, receive reward (11:1–12:17)

A. Definition of faith (11:1-3)

B. Examples of faith: Abel, Noah, Abraham, Moses and others (11:4-40)

1. Men of faith died, not getting fulfillment of promises (11:4-13)

2. They reached out for better place, one belonging to heaven (11:14-38)

3. Will be made perfect, but not apart from joint heirs with Christ (11:39, 40)

C. Faith requires discipline (12:1-17)

1. Surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, we should lay aside all weights in running race, looking intently at Jesus (12:1-3)

2. Do not belittle Jehovah’s discipline, which is for our good (12:4-11)

3. Make straight paths, pursue peace, sanctification (12:12-14)

4. Watch that no “poisonous” thing or person defiles others in congregation (12:15-17) 

VI. Superiority of Christian’s position (12:18-29)

A. Not approaching a literal mountain, but a heavenly Zion and Jerusalem, assembly of angels, congregation of firstborn, God the Judge of all and Jesus the Mediator (12:18-24)

B. God will shake both earth and heaven to remove shakable things (12:25-27)

C. Christians receive kingdom that cannot be shaken (12:28, 29)

VII. Concluding exhortations and remarks (13:1-25)

A. Counsel on brotherly love, hospitality, keeping marriage honorable and dependence on Jehovah (13:1-6)

B. Imitate faith of those taking lead; avoid being carried away with strange teachings (13:7-9)

C. Suffer reproach of Christ, looking for city to come (13:10-14)

D. Offer sacrifices of praise, do good, share with others (13:15, 16)

E. Be submissive to those taking lead (13:17)

F. Writer requests prayer of brothers, promises visit to Jerusalem, closes with greetings (13:18-25) 

Just another ape?

Berlinski, Metaxas in NYC: What Is a Human Being? 

David Klinghoffer 

The issues involved in the evolution debate — biological origins, human origins, human exceptionalism, intelligent design in life’s history versus the materialist theory of unguided Darwinian processes — derive their interest and importance largely from one question: What is a human being? If Darwinists are right, we are no more than another beast in the jungle. And you can expect about as much from us. Check out our current national culture to see the consequences of that idea being unfurled. If design proponents are correct, we are supremely more than beasts, at least potentially. “A little lower than the angels,” as the Psalmist said.

David Berlinski and Eric Metaxas will tackle the issue directly in what sounds like it will be a fantastic event in New York City on November 1. It’s a Socrates in the City public discussion at the Union League Club, devoted to the exploration of human nature. Philosopher, skeptic, and wit, Dr. Berlinski is the author most recently of the book Human Nature. He and Eric Metaxas are both hilarious in very different ways, so if you can make it, this will be a most entertaining evening. Tickets are on sale here. The price is not bad considering that the Club is quite the posh venue. Gentlemen, don’t forget your coat and tie if you wish to be admitted. 

 

The fossil record continues to not get with the program?

 Fossil Friday: Flowering Plants — Darwin’s Abominable Mystery 

Günter Bechly 

This Fossil Friday features an as yet undescribed putative fossil flowering plant from the Lower Cretaceous Crato limestone of northeast Brazil, which was never published before. I photographed this beautiful specimen at a German trader’s collection in July 2008. Flowering plants or angiosperms appear abruptly in the fossil record of the Lower Cretaceous (about 130 million years ago), which of course contradicts the gradualist expectations of Darwinian evolution.

This inconvenient fact troubled Charles Darwin so much that he called it an abominable mystery. I discussed this mystery in a previous article series at Evolution News (Bechly 2021b, 2021c, 2021d, 2021e) and in a podcast at ID the Future (Bechly 2021a). All claims about alleged Jurassic flowering plants have been debunked by experts (Sokoloff et al. 2019, Bateman 2020). Botanist Richard Buggs even showed (Buggs 2017a, 2017b, 2021) that Darwin’s abominable mystery is not only alive and kicking but in fact became worse with our growing knowledge about the plant fossil record, which clearly proves that this is not an artifact of our insufficient knowledge about an incomplete fossil record. 

A Sensational Discovery? 

The most recent claim for a Jurassic angiosperm was made by Wang (2021), with the description of an alleged angiosperm fruit Dilcherifructus mexicana from the Middle Jurassic of North America. The fact that such a sensational discovery, which would be akin to finding the holy grail of paleobotany, was published in an arcane journal without an impact factor instead of the cover story in a top-tier journal like Nature should ring all your alarm bells. Indeed, there is a reason this paper was totally ignored by the paleobotanic scientific community. This reason is as simple as it is embarrassing: the paper is total bonkers! 

Here is what Mario Coiro, an expert on plant evolution, wrote on Twitter. He was asked by a colleague what he thinks Dilcherifructus is. He replied, “a Samaropsis-like winged seed. And a proof that plant anatomy is taught so poorly that a gymnosperm-like stoma is mistaken for an angiosperm-like stoma.” This scathing comment says it all. Given the disastrous track record for all alleged Jurassic angiosperms, it will be wise to remain very Darwin’s “abominable mystery”. American Journal of Botany 108(1), 1–15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.1592

Oskin B 2015. Controversy Blooms Over Earliest Flower Fossil. LiveScience April 8, 2015. https://www.livescience.com/50419-oldest-flower-fossil-angiosperm.html

Sokoloff DD, Remizowa MV, El ES, Rudall PJ & Bateman RM 2019. Supposed Jurassic angiosperms lack pentamery, an important angiosperm-specific feature. New Phytologist228(2), 420–426. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15974

Wang X 2021. The Currently Earliest Angiosperm Fruit from the Jurassic of North America. Biosis: Biological Systems (2(4), 416–422. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37819/biosisskeptical when the next such claim should be made. Until then, enjoy the beautiful and diverse paleoflora of the Crato Formation and other contemporary fossil localities, when “angiosperms and their flowers sprang forth during the Cretaceous period, as fully formed as Aphrodite” (Oskin 2015). Exactly as Darwin did not predict. 

References 

Gossiping about neanderthal man?

 Got These Bad Habits? Blame Neanderthals!

Evolution News @DiscoveryCSC 

This from a recent DNA analysis study:

Around 40% of the Neandertal genome can still be found in present-day non-Africans, and each individual still carries ~2% of Neandertal DNA. Some of the archaic genetic variants may have conferred benefits at some point in our evolutionary past. Today, scientists can use this information to learn more about the impact of these genetic variants on human behaviour and the risk of developing diseases.

Using this approach, a new study from an international team led by researchers from the University of Tartu, Charité Berlin and the Amsterdam UMC analysed Neandertal DNA associations with a large variety of more than a hundred brain disorders and traits such as sleep, smoking or alcohol use in the UK Biobank with the aim to narrow down the specific contribution of Neandertal DNA to variation in behavioural features in people today.

The study found that while Neandertal DNA showed over-proportional numbers of associations with several traits that are associated with central nervous system diseases, the diseases themselves did not show any significant numbers of Neandertal DNA associations. Among the traits with the strongest Neandertal DNA contribution were smoking habits, alcohol consumption and sleeping patterns. Using data from other cohorts such as the Estonian Biobank, the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety, FinnGen, Biobank Japan and deCode, several of these results could be replicated. Of specific note were two independent top-risk Neandertal variants for a positive smoking status that were found in the UK Biobank and Biobank Japan respectively. 

ESTONIAN RESEARCH COUNCIL, “NEANDERTHAL DNA MIGHT BE LINKED TO SMOKING, DRINKING, SLEEPING PATTERNS IN MODERN HUMANS: STUDY” AT EUREKALERT (OCTOBER 6, 2022) 

So. Neanderthal man, long extinct as a separate human group, now explains why we smoke and drink to excess… How handy. And who can refute it? 

Once Just a Brute 

Recently fossil scientists have also suggested, based on their research, that Neanderthals couldn’t meditate. But wait. How can we know that from fossil skulls, given that the mind–brain relationship is unclear even in currently living human beings? Do you know if your next-door neighbor can meditate? Does your cube-sharing co-worker know if you can? Really?

The interesting thing is that, over the years, Neanderthal man — once just a brute — has actually gotten smarter. That’s not because he has changed. It’s because we know more than we used to about our ancestors. It would be nice to think that it is also because we are less arrogant now but that would be much very harder to prove.

Read the rest at Mind Matters News, published by Discovery Institute’s Bradley Center for Natural and Artificial Intelligence.

Science catching up with God? II

 Stephen Meyer: Galaxy Formation, the Early Universe, and the Big Bang 

Evolution News @DiscoveryCSC 

On a new episode of ID the Future, Return of the God Hypothesis author Stephen Meyer speaks with radio host Michael Medved about the extraordinarily powerful new James Webb Space Telescope. One researcher, Eric Lerner, has claimed that what the Webb telescope is seeing many billions of light years away (and therefore, many billions of years in the past) undercuts the Big Bang theory. But according to Meyer, the new photographs coming back from Webb actually further confirm the reality that our universe had a beginning — the Big Bang — and that it has been expanding ever since. What these Webb images are forcing a rethink on, Meyer says, is the conventional wisdom among cosmologists about galaxy formation in the early universe. Meyer explains why the evidence for a cosmic beginning is stronger than ever, as is the God hypothesis that it supports. Download the podcast or listen to it here. 

This zombie is finally buried for good?

Noncoding RNA Research Gaining Ground Over “Junk” Label 

David Coppedge 

Perhaps it won’t be long before everyone, critics included, looks at the “junk DNA” concept in the rear-view mirror. In Nature Methods this month, the editors give voice to paradigm shifters. “The research community focused on noncoding RNAs keeps growing,” writes journalist Vivien Marx in a Technology Feature (open access). But “Skepticism about the field has some history.” Like dark horse candidates taking the lead, the treasure hunters appear to be way ahead of the pack. Revealingly, the headline is written in past tense: “How noncoding RNAs began to leave the junkyard.” 

Junk. In the view of some, that’s what noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are — genes that are transcribed but not translated into proteins. With one of his ncRNA papers, University of Queensland researcher Tim Mercer recalls that two reviewers said, “this is good” and the third said, “this is all junk; noncoding RNAs aren’t functional.” Debates over ncRNAs, in Mercer’s view, have generally moved from ‘it’s all junk’ to ‘which ones are functional?’ and ‘what are they doing?’ Researchers are mapping out the future of the field, which is the theme of a second story in this issue. Scientists in the ncRNA field have faced skepticism and worked to dispel it.  

Vivien Marx lists some “exemplar” ncRNAs that have been shown to be functional:

Xist: this lncRNA inactivates one of the X chromosomes in female mammals.

The lac operon is part of a gene regulatory circuit required for the transport and metabolism of lactose in E. coli and in many other enteric bacteria.

micF was among the first regulators of gene expression discovered. It inhibits translation of a target messenger RNA in response to environmental stress.

lin-4, a microRNA (miRNA), affects expression of a messenger RNA (mRNA) after it has been transcribed. 

As Aurora Esquela-Kerscher from Eastern Virginia Medical School points out, lin-4 is “the founding member of the miRNA superfamily.” Many miRNAs have been identified in plant, animal and viral genomes, and they appear to affect diverse cellular processes including proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, metabolic and immune responses. Studying lin-4 in C. elegans brought a fundamental understanding of miRNAs mechanisms. miRNAs are “more complex than initially predicted,” and they direct important functions in the nucleus and cytoplasm; they modulate genes in positive and negative ways. “Stay tuned — these tiny RNAs likely have bigger surprises in store for us!” 

Noncoding RNAs are ubiquitous in the cell. Some act like switches that turn gene expression on and off in different cell types and tissues and in different stages of development. 

Once researchers discovered that one miRNA can regulate hundreds of different mRNAs — this began with the work on lin-4 — “it was a total game changer,” says Linscott. “Suddenly, we had an explanation for how many different parts of a given pathway might be influenced by a single noncoding element.” 

History and Outlook 

Marx’s article takes readers through a brief history of RNA discoveries, from the year 1869 when nucleic acids were first identified to the present. The field still lacks maturity, however, so design advocates should not rush to assume every base in the genome is functional. When the ENCODE consortium found that 80 percent of the genome was transcribed, it did not imply that the functions of all those transcripts were understood. 

What was lacking then and what is lacking still, he says, is a theory that would allow fitting RNA into the larger scheme of regulation. “Because all of the examples we knew of were kind of one-offs,” says Guttman. Small nuclear RNAs, for example, will base-pair with introns at splice sites to guide the splicing machinery. “How do you generalize beyond splicing?” he asks. Small nucleolar RNAs base-pair with 45S pre-ribosomal RNA; that’s another “one-off.” Xist, a lncRNA, silences one of the two X chromosomes in female mammals’ X chromosomes, and it presents another extrapolation challenge, says Guttman. The evidence about Xist is generally accepted, he says, but it remains seemingly exceptional. 

Genomics has clearly “evolved” beyond its earlier protein-centric thinking, Marx concludes, but “Doubts may remain and some aspects remain challenging to prove.” Design advocates should avoid the appearance of repeating “just-so stories” about functions of ncRNAs. Maite Huarte advises, “The lack of rigor in some studies has fed the skepticism of some researchers, and we face the challenge of producing the best possible evidence to overcome this prejudice.”

A month earlier in The Scientist, Christie Wilcox wrote about “The noncoding regulators in the brain.” Her article features a helpful infographic about types of ncRNAs. They are “not so noncoding” after all:

Noncoding RNA may be a bit of a misnomer. At least some lncRNAs, circRNAs, and transcripts of other so-called noncoding genomic regions do, in fact, contain open reading frames that code for micropeptides.

The coding-noncoding nomenclature for RNAs arose in the early days of genomic sequencing. “That’s kind of human nature there, to have to compartmentalize everything,” says University of Queensland molecular neuroscientist Timothy Bredy. But when it comes to the diversity of forms RNAs can take, researchers now know that such restrictive boxes just don’t capture reality. “We have to come up with a new way to describe them — like multidimensional, or multifunctional RNA species,” he says. 

The Road Ahead 

In a companion article in Nature Methods, Marx looks to “Some roads ahead for ncRNAs.” Now that GENCODE has identified 20,000 lncRNAs and the FANTOM consortium has identified 30,000, the priority is to “develop and apply methods to identify and understand the roles of lncRNAs and RNA networks” so that the scientific community can announce clear-cut results and propose applications. 

As matters shift from sweeping statements about junk and transcriptional noise, tasks shift to the practicalities of exploring functionality of ncRNAs to uncover their roles in differentiation, development and disease, says Mercer. He sees a new generation of scientists settling in to do the “hard work” of building on the field’s accomplishments, in which technology development and application have mattered. It will matter, for example, to combine methods — existing ones and new ones still to be developed. 

While there is “no dearth of ncRNAs” (the human genome has 96,411 lncRNA genes and 173,112 lncRNA transcripts, Marx notes), untangling the intricacies of the genomic network will take time. Alternative splicing can affect ncRNAs, producing different functions, just like it does with protein-coding transcripts. But since knockout experiments with ncRNAs are not as definitive as those with genes, one must not generalize from observations too quickly. What happens in one cell type may operate differently in another. John Mattick of the University of New South Wales is optimistic about the functional capacity of the genome: 

Genomes, says Mattick, are “zip files” of transcription, with many layers of information. “The human genome is incredibly information dense,” he says. ncRNAs are, for example, involved in brain development in ways yet to be deciphered. “There’s just a whole world of these things that are being produced in different stages of differentiation and development, and we’ve hardly scratched the surface of which ones do what.” 

Gene Yao at UC San Diego views the genome as a collection of isoforms involving both genes and non-coding regions. Seen that way, there is far more information packed into the genome than the small number of genes that surprised biochemists when the Human Genome Project was completed. 

Yeo advises keeping in mind that beyond the around 25,000 human genes there are hundreds and thousands of alternative isoforms. “When I think about RNA, I think really isoforms,” he says. Because isoforms cannot be distinguished by in situ hybridization, “I would say we’re missing 80% of the picture,” such as subcellular effects. This adds to the live cell measurements that aren’t readily possible. 

Bringing Critics Around 

There are still critics who think the RNA research community is “overstating the extent of lncRNA function” and making unsubstantiated claims. The exemplars cannot yet be generalized to other ncRNAs of unknown function, they argue. Proponents respond that progress is hard. It is much more difficult to perturb ncRNAs without affecting anything else. Non-coding RNAs are not “evolutionarily conserved” like many genes are — a clue geneticists have used to evaluate likely functional importance. Each ncRNA must be evaluated within its cell type and developmental context. 

Some critics point to the low expression levels of ncRNAs to argue that they can’t be all that important. Marx lets Mitch Guttman of Caltech respond; he points out that “lncRNAs ‘can punch above their weight,’ and act in a nonstoichiometric way to amplify effects.” By analogy, one switch can turn a lot of things on or off. Wilcox quotes Duke University developmental neurobiologist Debra Silver: 

“It’s sort of like hitting, for lack of a better term, almost a master regulator of gene expression,” says Silver. “And by doing that, it’s going to influence gene expression of its targets likely in a very cell-specific, tissue-specific, timing-specific fashion, and that itself could then affect expression of downstream targets below that.” Because of this, she adds “even though our genomes of human and, say, chimpanzees are remarkably similar globally at the DNA level, there is a whole host of regulatory changes at the RNA level that are likely to contribute synergistically to human-specific traits.” 

Wilcox agrees that RNAs have gotten “a lot more attention” in the last 10 to 15 years, but the field needs to move past the cataloging stage and determine functions of the thousands of identified ncRNAs. “One of the trickier aspects of studying noncoding RNAs is that they don’t act alone,” she says. “Rather, they function in networks and systems in cells that can be tricky to recapitulate in experimental models.”

These are examples of debates currently going on in the field of RNA research. Now that voluminous data has been collected on noncoding regions of the genome, researchers are busy doing the hard work to analyze it and understand it. More young scientists are choosing RNA research as their career specialty. Without overstating the case, design advocates can watch this scientific revolution with anticipation that the degree of specified complexity in the genome will continue to grow. 

 

More than the sum of my parts.

 Is Consciousness a “Controlled Brain Hallucination”? 

Michael Egnor 

Philosopher David Chalmers famously divided the problem of understanding how consciousness is related to the brain by distinguishing between the easy and hard problems of consciousness.

The easy problem of consciousness is typically faced by working neuroscientists — i.e., what parts of the brain are metabolically active when we’re awake? What kinds of neurons are involved in memory? These problems are “easy” only in the sense that they are tractable. The neuroscience necessary to answer them is challenging but, with enough skill and perseverance, it can be done.

The hard problem of consciousness is another matter entirely. It is this: How can first-person subjective experience arise from brain matter? How do we get an “I” from an “it”? Compared with the easy problem, the hard problem is, from the perspective of materialist neuroscience, intractable. 

Evading the Hard Problem 

Many neuroscientists evade the hard problem by denying its relevance to neuroscience. In a recent essay, leading neuroscientist Anil Seth, co-director of the Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science at the University of Sussex in Brighton, eschews the easy/hard problem distinction: 

T]he rise of modern neuroscience has seen a more pragmatic approach gain ground: an approach that is guided by philosophy but doesn’t rely on philosophical research to provide the answers. Its key is to recognise that explaining why consciousness exists at all is not necessary in order to make progress in revealing its material basis – to start building explanatory bridges from the subjective and phenomenal to the objective and measurable… In my own research, a new picture is taking shape in which conscious experience is seen as deeply grounded in how brains and bodies work together to maintain physiological integrity – to stay alive. In this story, we are conscious ‘beast-machines’, and I hope to show you why.

ANIL SETH, “THE REAL PROBLEM” AT AEON (NOVEMBER 2, 2016) 

So how is it that we “conscious ‘beast machines’” are conscious? Seth: 

To answer this, we can appeal to the same process that underlies other forms of perception. The brain makes its ‘best guess’, based on its prior beliefs or expectations, and the available sensory data. In this case, the relevant sensory data include signals specific to the body, as well as the classic senses such as vision and touch. These bodily senses include proprioception, which signals the body’s configuration in space, and interoception, which involves a raft of inputs that convey information from inside the body, such as blood pressure, gastric tension, heartbeat and so on. The experience of embodied selfhood depends on predictions about body-related causes of sensory signals across interoceptive and proprioceptive channels, as well as across the classic senses. Our experiences of being and having a body are ‘controlled hallucinations’ of a very distinctive kind.

ANIL SETH, “THE REAL PROBLEM” AT AEON (NOVEMBER 2, 2016) 

The Essence of His Theory 

There’s a lot more to Seth’s rather verbose essay, but the essence of his theory of consciousness is that the brain integrates a cacophony of sensory inputs to fabricate an explanation for perceived reality — a “controlled hallucination” — that we call consciousness. This view, that consciousness is, in one sense or another, the consequence of massive parallel processing going on in neural circuits in the brain, is common among modern neuroscientists. But it can’t be true.

To see why, consider the neurological consequences of split brain surgery and the congenital brain condition called hydranencephaly.

In split brain surgery, neurosurgeons cut the massive bundle of nerve fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres in order to lessen the propagation of seizures in patients with epilepsy. The two brain hemispheres are disconnected — information from one hemisphere cannot readily be transmitted to the other. This radical disconnection of the brain hemispheres causes massive interference with “sensory signals across interoceptive and proprioceptive channels, as well as across the classic senses” but, contrary to what Seth’s theory seems to predict, there is no impairment of consciousness whatsoever. Patients with split brains (I have performed the surgery myself) have very subtle perceptual disabilities of which they are almost always unaware, and there is no impairment in consciousness. 

Subject to the Scalpel? 

Neuroscientist Yair Pinto calls this split brain state “divided perception but undivided consciousness”. It is difficult to reconcile Seth’s notion of consciousness as “controlled hallucination” as a result of massively integrated perceptions with the full preservation of consciousness following cutting the brain hemispheres in half. Consciousness is not, in this circumstance, subject to the scalpel, as Seth’s materialist theory implies it must be.

An even more intractable problem for Seth’s “controlled hallucination” theory is hydranencephaly. Hydranencephaly is a condition in which children are often born without brain hemispheres. The cause is usually a massive intrauterine stroke that destroys all of the brain above the brainstem. Nearly all of the perceptual circuits on which Seth’s theory depends are not merely cut, but are completely destroyed, yet children with hydranencephaly are fully conscious.

Read the rest at Mind Matters News, published by Discovery Institute’s Bradley Center for Natural and Artificial Intelligence.

Modern day animism?

 Woke Science: Prestigious Biology Journal Claims “Ocean” Is a “Living Entity” with Rights 

Wesley J. Smith 

I have been warning that the “nature rights” issue is moving very quickly from the fringe to mainstream environmentalism. Now, a major essay in a prestigious, peer-reviewed scientific journal argues that oceans are a “living entity” entitled to rights.

Before we start, note how science itself has been corrupted by woke assumptions. The language deployed is the same woke gobbledygook you would expect to see in a vapid university Deconstructing English Literature class. From, “Living in Relationship with the Ocean to Transform Governance in the UN Ocean Decade,” published by PLOS Biology: 

Rights of Nature is one legal framework within the body of Earth law. As evidenced by global comparative studies, Rights of Nature recognizes Nature as a living being with inherent rights and that society has a right to defend and protect Nature. Therefore, the emerging Rights of Nature movement seeks to illustrate Nature as valued for itself (intrinsic value), no longer viewed as an object or property, but as a subject with rights. As such, references to the Ocean, Ocean-centered governance, and Nature are capitalized in this Essay to be consistent with the Rights of Nature framing and recognition as a legal entity and noun. 

The essay claims that the oceans — I refuse to use “Ocean,” as if seas are a single living entity — have agency: 

By positioning the Ocean as a living entity with inherent rights, governance advances understandings that the Ocean has agency, is an actor worthy of representation, and that democratization of global Ocean governance must be inclusive of Ocean values and diverse “waves of knowing” or deep ancestral knowledge and connections to place that center Ocean relationality

Not a Sentient Being 

This is irrational and a-scientific. The oceans are not a sentient being. They are geological features. Water is not alive, it supports life — all of which would also have rights as part of either nature rights or ocean rights.

The essay calls for “Ocean-centered governance,” which would allow “anyone” to enforce the rights of nature and assign guardians to represent “Ocean,” meaning, of course, ideologues like the authors (two of whom work at the Earth Law Center): 

Ocean-centered governance ensures the agency or representation of nonhuman stakeholders in decision-making processes, such as through human guardians (other terms used include protectors, stewards, trustees, and custodians) and recognizes the global population as including all species, with humans as just one entity within the system, thereby constraining economic activity within ecological limits.  

Ideology, Not Science 

Again, this is not science, but radical ideology, promoted by non-scientists in a supposedly scientific journal. The ideas presented are akin to the Gaia Theory which sees the entire earth as a living entity. The goal of “constraining economic activity” is clearly stated, which of course means restraining capitalism and installing an international socialized technocracy to govern the use of ocean resources.

The “Ocean rights” approach would make the creatures of the sea co-equal with humans and restrain human uses of the ocean to ensure that animals and plants therein are able to live natural life spans: 

Linda Sheehan postulates a definition of health as “normal form and function” over a long period of time and “demonstrat[ing] sufficient organization, vigor, and resilience to allow ecosystems and species to exist, thrive, and evolve as natural systems within the context of their expected natural life spans”. Ocean-centered governance recognizes Oceanic ecosystems as all intrinsically valuable and determines metrics for what constitutes a “healthy” Ocean as defined by the Ocean’s intrinsic needs, including chemical, physical, and biological needs, rather than the Ocean’s utility as a human resource or economic benefit.  

It is a very long essay, but you get the gist. The goal is to move away from a proper regulatory approach to conserving and husbanding ocean resources to the establishment of an international technocracy — rule by experts and ideologues — that would treat humankind as merely one species among the rest, an earth-religion approach that would substantially harm our thriving and freedom. 

The Inquisition: a brief history.

 The Inquisition:

also throughout their empires in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. This resulted in the Goa Inquisition, the Peruvian Inquisition, and the Mexican Inquisition, among others.[6]

With the exception of the Papal States, the institution of the Inquisition was abolished in the early 19th century, after the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and the Spanish American wars of independence in the Americas. The institution survived as part of the Roman Curia, but in 1908 it was renamed the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. In 1965, it became the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.[7] 

Definition and purpose 

remanded.[14]

The 1578 edition of the Directorium Inquisitorum (a standard Inquisitorial manual) spelled out the purpose of inquisitorial penalties: ... quoniam punitio non refertur primo & per se in correctionem & bonum eius qui punitur, sed in bonum publicum ut alij terreantur, & a malis committendis avocentur (translation: "... for punishment does not take place primarily and per se for the correction and good of the person punished, but for the public good in order that others may become terrified and weaned away from the evils they would commit").[15]

Origin 

establishing inquisitions (the Episcopal Inquisition). The first Inquisition was temporarily established in Languedoc (south of France) in 1184. The murder of Pope Innocent's papal legate Pierre de Castelnau in 1208 sparked the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229). The Inquisition was permanently established in 1229 (Council of Toulouse), run largely by the Dominicans[21] in Rome and later at Carcassonne in Languedoc. 

Medieval Inquisition 

inquisitors were given absolution if they used instruments of torture.[23]

In the 13th century, Pope Gregory IX (reigned 1227–1241) assigned the duty of carrying out inquisitions to the Dominican Order and Franciscan Order. By the end of the Middle Ages, England and Castile were the only large western nations without a papal inquisition. Most inquisitors were friars who taught theology and/or law in the universities. They used inquisitorial procedures, a common legal practice adapted from the earlier Ancient Roman court procedures.[24] They judged heresy along with bishops and groups of "assessors" (clergy serving in a role that was roughly analogous to a jury or legal advisers), using the local authorities to establish a tribunal and to prosecute heretics. After 1200, a Grand Inquisitor headed each Inquisition. Grand Inquisitions persisted until the mid 19th century.[25]

Early Modern European history 

With the sharpening of debate and of conflict between the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, Protestant societies came to see/use the Inquisition as a terrifying "Other",[26] while staunch Catholics regarded the Holy Office as a necessary bulwark against the spread of reprehensible heresies. 

Witch-trials 

bad weather. The book is also noted for its animus against women.[29] Despite Kramer's claim that the book gained acceptance from the clergy at the University of Cologne, it was in fact condemned by the clergy at Cologne for advocating views that violated Catholic doctrine and standard inquisitorial procedure. In 1538 the Spanish Inquisition cautioned its members not to believe everything the Malleus said. 

Spanish Inquisition 

Spanish colonies and territories, which included the Canary Islands, the Kingdom of Sicily,[45] and all Spanish possessions in North, Central, and South America. It primarily focused upon forced converts from Islam (Moriscos, Conversos and secret Moors) and from Judaism (Conversos, Crypto-Jews and Marranos)—both groups still resided in Spain after the end of the Islamic control of Spain—who came under suspicion of either continuing to adhere to their old religion or of having fallen back into it.

In 1492 all Jews who had not converted were expelled from Spain; those who converted became nominal Catholics and thus subject to the Inquisition 

Inquisition in the Spanish overseas empire 

In the Americas, King Philip II of Spain set up three tribunals (each formally titled Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición) in 1569, one in Mexico, Cartagena de Indias (in modern-day Colombia) and Peru. The Mexican office administered Mexico (central and southeastern Mexico), Nueva Galicia (northern and western Mexico), the Audiencias of Guatemala (Guatemala, Chiapas, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), and the Spanish East Indies. The Peruvian Inquisition, based in Lima, administered all the Spanish territories in South America and Panama. 

Portuguese Inquisition 

Inquisition expanded its scope of operations from Portugal to its colonial possessions, including Brazil, Cape Verde, and Goa. In the colonies, it continued as a religious court, investigating and trying cases of breaches of the tenets of orthodox Roman Catholicism until 1821. King João III (reigned 1521–57) extended the activity of the courts to cover censorship, divination, witchcraft, and bigamy. Originally oriented for a religious action, the Inquisition exerted an influence over almost every aspect of Portuguese society: political, cultural, and social.

According to Henry Charles Lea, between 1540 and 1794, tribunals in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and Évora resulted in the burning of 1,175 persons, the burning of another 633 in effigy, and the penancing of 29,590.[46] But documentation of 15 out of 689 autos-da-fé has disappeared, so these numbers may slightly understate the activity.[47] 

Inquisition in the Portuguese overseas empire 

The Goa Inquisition began in 1560 at the order of John III of Portugal. It had originally been requested in a letter in the 1540s by Jesuit priest Francis Xavier, because of the New Christians who had arrived in Goa and then reverted to Judaism. The Goa Inquisition also focused upon Catholic converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. In addition, this inquisition prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the public observance of Hindu or Muslim rites or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism.[48] Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques set it up in the palace of the Sabaio Adil Khan.

Brazilian Inquisition

The inquisition was active in colonial Brazil. The religious mystic and formerly enslaved prostitute, Rosa Egipcíaca was arrested, interrogated and imprisoned, both in the colony and in Lisbon. Egipcíaca was the first black woman in Brazil to write a book - this work detailed her visions and was entitled Sagrada Teologia do Amor Divino das Almas Peregrinas.[49] 

Roman Inquisition 

imprisonment. This led to the possibility of false charges to enable confiscation being made against those over a certain income, particularly rich marranos. Following the French invasion of 1798, the new authorities sent 3,000 chests containing over 100,000 Inquisition documents to France from Rome. 

Ending of the Inquisition in the 19th and 20th centuries

By decree of Napoleon's government in 1797, the Inquisition in Venice was abolished in 1806.[56]

In Portugal, in the wake of the Liberal Revolution of 1820, the "General Extraordinary and Constituent Courts of the Portuguese Nation" abolished the Portuguese inquisition in 1821.

The wars of independence of the former Spanish colonies in the Americas concluded with the abolition of the Inquisition in every quarter of Hispanic America between 1813 and 1825.

The last execution of the Inquisition was in Spain in 1826.[57] This was the execution by garroting of the school teacher Cayetano Ripoll for purportedly teaching Deism in his school.[57] In Spain the practices of the Inquisition were finally outlawed in 1834.[58]

In Italy, the restoration of the Pope as the ruler of the Papal States in 1814 brought back the Inquisition to the Papal States. It remained active there until the late-19th century, notably in the well-publicised Mortara affair (1858–1870). In 1908 the name of the Congregation became "The Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office", which in 1965 further changed to "Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith", as retained to the present day. 

Statistics 

Beginning in the 19th century, historians have gradually compiled statistics drawn from the surviving court records, from which estimates have been calculated by adjusting the recorded number of convictions by the average rate of document loss for each time period. Gustav Henningsen and Jaime Contreras studied the records of the Spanish Inquisition, which list 44,674 cases of which 826 resulted in executions in person and 778 in effigy (i.e. a straw dummy was burned in place of the person).[59] William Monter estimated there were 1000 executions between 1530–1630 and 250 between 1630 and 1730.[60] Jean-Pierre Dedieu studied the records of Toledo's tribunal, which put 12,000 people on trial.[61] For the period prior to 1530, Henry Kamen estimated there were about 2,000 executions in all of Spain's tribunals.[62] Italian Renaissance history professor and Inquisition expert Carlo Ginzburg had his doubts about using statistics to reach a judgment about the period. "In many cases, we don't have the evidence, the evidence has been lost," said Ginzburg 

Appearance in popular media 

ethics and purpose of inquisition, and a scene of Inquisition. In the movie by the same name, The Inquisition plays a prominent role including torture and a burning at the stake.

In the novel La Catedral del Mar by Ildefonso Falcones, and Netflix series Cathedral of the Sea based on the novel, there are scenes of inquisition investigations in small towns and a great scene in Barcelona.

Miloš Forman's "Goya's Ghosts", released June 9, 2007 in the US, brings to light the stories behind some of Spanish painter Francisco Goya's paintings during the Spanish Inquisition, particularly one of a priest condemning and imprisoning a beautiful woman for his own profit. Her family retaliates, but cannot save her.

A fictionalized version of the Inquisition serves as a basis for the action-adventure horror stealth game A Plague Tale: Innocence.

In the Assassin's Creed series, the Spanish Inquisition is controlled by the Templar Order, the nemesis of the Assassin 

 

To the drumbeat of JAH III

 Intelligent Design and Cosmic Fine-Tuning 

David Coppedge 

Yesterday I noted some solar system coincidences that seem to be fortuitously timed for scientific discovery. The fine-tuning of the universe’s laws and constants has been discussed at length in these pages and in books like The Privileged Planet, Michael Denton’s Privileged Species series, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, Rare Earth, and A Fortunate Universe. 

Dynamic Parameters 

Not as often considered is the fact that many of these vital parameters are dynamic; they change over time. One simple example is the expansion rate of the universe. Given the consensus Big Bang view, the Earth-sun-moon system had to form after several generations of stars formed sufficient heavy elements, but before the availability of elements became too sparse. At a point in the distant future, after the galaxies vanish beyond the observable horizon, sentient beings would never know a night sky filled with stars. It would be a lonely, dark existence. On page 180 of The Privileged Planet, Guillermo Gonzalez and Jay Richards point out that the “best time to discover the geometry of the universe” amounts to a tiny fraction of the time between the Big Bang and the end of all opportunity, when the last black holes evaporate. Additionally, if the expansion is accelerating as the “dark energy” advocates tell us, the Goldilocks period during which sentient beings can both live and do science may be much narrower than thought. Consequently, there is a “Cosmic Habitable Age” to consider in addition to fine-tuning of constants and laws (Gonzalez, pp. 181-193).  

The Cosmic Habitable Age 

In combination, the factors mentioned here and in my last two posts constrain the “cosmic habitable age” to narrower dimensions. Without listing all the dynamical requirements for life, this brief consideration could prompt design advocates to investigate and refine the fine-tuning parameters that depend on timing. 

As we look out among the stars, and breathe clean air, and ingest nutrients in our food that keep our molecular motors running, our awe should increase at not only the fine-tuning that makes it all possible, but also the fine timing that suggests our purpose on Earth was intended. To extend the late Freeman Dyson’s famous remark: “As we look out into the Universe and identify the many accidents of physics and astronomy that have worked together to our benefit, it almost seems as if the Universe must in some sense have known not only that we were coming, but when we were coming.” 

Acts of the apostles:The Watchtower society's commentary

 ACTS OF APOSTLES 

This is the title by which one of the Bible books has been called since the second century C.E. It covers primarily the activity of Peter and Paul, rather than that of all the apostles in general; and it provides us with a most reliable and comprehensive history of the spectacular beginning and rapid development of the Christian organization, first among the Jews and then among the Samaritans and the Gentile nations.

The overriding theme of the entire Bible, Jehovah’s Kingdom, dominates the book (Ac 1:3; 8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:31), and we are constantly reminded of how the apostles bore “thorough witness” concerning Christ and that Kingdom and fully accomplished their ministry. (2:40; 5:42; 8:25; 10:42; 20:21, 24; 23:11; 26:22; 28:23) The book also provides a superb historical background against which to view the inspired letters of the Christian Greek Scriptures.

The Writer. The opening words of Acts refer to the Gospel of Luke as “the first account.” And since both accounts are addressed to the same individual, Theophilus, we know that Luke, though not signing his name, was the writer of Acts. (Lu 1:3; Ac 1:1) Both accounts have a similar style and wording. The Muratorian Fragment of the late second century C.E. also attributes the writership to Luke. Ecclesiastical writings of the second century C.E. by Irenaeus of Lyons, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian of Carthage, when quoting from Acts, cite Luke as the writer.

When and Where Written. The book covers a period of approximately 28 years, from Jesus’ ascension in 33 C.E. to the end of the second year of Paul’s imprisonment in Rome about 61 C.E. During this period four Roman emperors ruled in succession: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. Since it relates events through the second year of Paul’s imprisonment in Rome, it could not have been completed earlier. Had the account been written later, it is reasonable to expect that Luke would have provided more information about Paul; if written after the year 64 C.E., mention surely would have been made of Nero’s violent persecution that began then; and if written after 70 C.E., as some contend, we would expect to find Jerusalem’s destruction recorded.

The writer Luke accompanied Paul much of the time during his travels, including the perilous voyage to Rome, which is apparent from his use of the first-person plural pronouns “we,” “our,” and “us” in Acts 16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1-37; 28:1-16. Paul, in his letters written from Rome, mentions that Luke was also there. (Col 4:14; Phm 24) It was, therefore, in Rome that the writing of the book of Acts was completed.

As already observed, Luke himself was an eyewitness to much of what he wrote, and in his travels he contacted fellow Christians who either participated in or observed certain events described. For example, John Mark could tell him of Peter’s miraculous prison release (Ac 12:12), while the events described in chapters 6 and 8 could have been learned from the missionary Philip. And Paul, of course, as an eyewitness, was able to supply many details of events that happened when Luke was not with him.

Authenticity. The accuracy of the book of Acts has been verified over the years by a number of archaeological discoveries. For example, Acts 13:7 says that Sergius Paulus was the proconsul of Cyprus. Now it is known that shortly before Paul visited Cyprus it was ruled by a propraetor, or legate, but an inscription found in Cyprus proves that the island did come under the direct rule of the Roman Senate in the person of a provincial governor called a proconsul. Similarly in Greece, during the rule of Augustus Caesar, Achaia was a province under the direct rule of the Roman Senate, but when Tiberius was emperor it was ruled directly by him. Later, under Emperor Claudius, it again became a senatorial province, according to Tacitus. A fragment of a rescript from Claudius to the Delphians of Greece has been discovered, which refers to Gallio’s proconsulship. Therefore, Acts 18:12 is correct in speaking of Gallio as the “proconsul” when Paul was there in Corinth, the capital of Achaia. (See GALLIO.) Also, an inscription on an archway in Thessalonica (fragments of which are preserved in the British Museum) shows that Acts 17:8 is correct in speaking of “the city rulers” (“politarchs,” governors of the citizens), even though this title is not found in classical literature.

To this day in Athens the Areopagus, or Mars’ Hill, where Paul preached, stands as a silent witness to the truthfulness of Acts. (Ac 17:19) Medical terms and expressions found in Acts are in agreement with the Greek medical writers of that time. Modes of travel used in the Middle East in the first century were essentially as described in Acts: overland, by walking, horseback, or horse-drawn chariots (23:24, 31, 32; 8:27-38); overseas, by cargo ships. (21:1-3; 27:1-5) Those ancient vessels did not have a single rudder but were controlled by two large oars, hence accurately spoken of in the plural number. (27:40) The description of Paul’s voyage by ship to Rome (27:1-44) as to the time taken, the distance traveled, and the places visited is acknowledged by modern seamen familiar with the region as completely reliable and trustworthy.

Acts of Apostles was accepted without question as inspired Scripture and canonical by Scripture catalogers from the second through the fourth centuries C.E. Portions of the book, along with fragments of the four Gospels, are found in the Chester Beatty No. 1 papyrus manuscript (P⁠45) of the third century C.E. The Michigan No. 1571 manuscript (P⁠38) of the third or fourth century contains portions of chapters 18 and 19, and a fourth-century manuscript, Aegyptus No. 8683 (P⁠8), contains parts of chapters 4 through 6. The book of Acts was quoted from by Polycarp of Smyrna about 115 C.E., by Ignatius of Antioch about 110 C.E., and by Clement of Rome perhaps as early as 95 C.E. Athanasius, Jerome, and Augustine of the fourth century all confirm the earlier listings that included Acts.

[Box on page 43]

HIGHLIGHTS OF ACTS

The beginning of the Christian congregation and a record of its zealous public witnessing in the face of fierce opposition

Time covered: 33 to c. 61 C.E.

Before ascending to heaven, Jesus commissions followers to be witnesses of him as Jehovah’s Messiah (1:1-26)

After receiving holy spirit, disciples boldly witness in many languages (2:1–5:42)

Jews in Jerusalem from many lands are given witness in their own languages; about 3,000 baptized

Peter and John are arrested and taken before Sanhedrin; fearlessly declare they will not stop witnessing

Filled with holy spirit, all the disciples speak the word of God boldly; multitudes become believers

Apostles are arrested; an angel releases them; brought before the Sanhedrin, they declare: “We must obey God as ruler rather than men”

Persecution results in expansion of the witness (6:1–9:43)

Stephen is seized, gives fearless witness, dies a martyr

Persecution scatters all but apostles; witness given in Samaria; Ethiopian eunuch baptized

Jesus appears to the persecutor Saul; Saul is converted, baptized, begins zealous ministry

Under divine direction the witness reaches uncircumcised Gentiles (10:1–12:25)

Peter preaches to Cornelius, his family, and his friends; these believe, receive holy spirit, and are baptized

Apostle’s report of this prompts further expansion among nations

Paul’s evangelizing tours (13:1–21:26)

First tour: To Cyprus, Asia Minor. Paul and Barnabas boldly witness publicly and in synagogues; thrown out of Antioch; mobbed in Iconium; first treated like gods in Lystra, then Paul is stoned

Circumcision issue decided by governing body at Jerusalem; Paul and Barnabas assigned to inform brothers that circumcision is not required but that believers must abstain from things sacrificed to idols, from blood, and from fornication

Second tour: Back through Asia Minor, into Macedonia and Greece. Imprisoned in Philippi, but jailer and his family get baptized; Jews stir up trouble in Thessalonica and Beroea; in Athens, Paul preaches in synagogue, in the marketplace, then on the Areopagus; 18-month ministry in Corinth

Third tour: Asia Minor, Greece. Fruitful Ephesian ministry, then uproar by silversmiths; apostle admonishes elders

Paul is arrested, witnesses to officials, is taken to Rome (21:27–28:31)

After mobbing in Jerusalem, Paul before Sanhedrin

As prisoner, Paul gives fearless witness before Felix, Festus, and King Herod Agrippa II, also on boat en route to Rome

A prisoner in Rome, Paul continues to find ways to preach about Christ and the Kingdom

Bass Reeves: a brief history.

 Bass Reeves :(July 1838 – January 12, 1910) was an American law enforcement official, historically noted as the first black deputy U.S. marshal west of the Mississippi River. He worked mostly in Arkansas and the Oklahoma Territory.[a] During his long career, he had on his record more than 3,000 arrests of dangerous fugitives, and shot and killed 14 of them in self-defense. 

Early life

Reeves was born into slavery in Crawford County, Arkansas, in 1838.[1][2] He was named after his grandfather, Bass Washington. Reeves and his family were enslaved by Arkansas state legislator William Steele Reeves.[1] When Bass was eight (about 1846), William Reeves moved to Grayson County, Texas, near Sherman in the Peters Colony.[1] It appears plausible that Reeves was kept in bondage by William Steele Reeves's son, Colonel George R. Reeves -- a Texan sheriff, legislator, and one-time Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives until his death from rabies in 1882.[3]

When the American Civil War began, George Reeves joined the Confederate Army, taking Bass with him. It is unclear how, and exactly when, Bass Reeves escaped, but at some point during the Civil War, he gained his freedom. One account recalls how Bass Reeves and George Reeves had an altercation over a card game. Bass severely beat George, and fled to the Indian Territory where he lived among the Cherokee, Creeks and Seminoles.[2][3][4] Bass stayed with these Native American tribes and learned their languages until he was freed by the Thirteenth Amendment's abolishment of slavery in 1865.[3]

As a freedman, Reeves moved to Arkansas and farmed near Van Buren.[5][6][7][8] 

Career 

Reeves and his family farmed until 1875, when Isaac Parker was appointed federal judge for the Indian Territory. Parker appointed James F. Fagan as U.S. marshal, directing him to hire 200 deputy U.S. marshals. Fagan had heard about Reeves, who knew the Territory and could speak several Native languages.[5] He recruited him as a deputy; Reeves was the first black deputy to serve west of the Mississippi River.[2][5] Reeves was assigned as a deputy U.S. marshal for the Western District of Arkansas, which had responsibility also for the Native reservation Territory.[9] He served there until 1893. That year he transferred to the Eastern District of Texas in Paris, Texas, for a short while. In 1897, he was transferred again, serving at the Muskogee Federal Court in the Native Territory.[9]

Reeves worked for 32 years as a federal peace officer in the Indian Territory, and became one of Judge Parker's most valued deputies. Reeves brought in some of the most dangerous fugitives of the time; he was never wounded despite having his hat and belt shot off on separate occasions.[2]

In addition to being a marksman with a rifle and revolver, Reeves developed superior detective skills during his long career. When he retired in 1907, Reeves had on his record over 3,000 arrests of felons.[2][5] He killed 14 outlaws to defend his life.[5] Reeves had to arrest his own son for murder;[2] Benjamin "Bennie" Reeves was charged with the murder of his own wife. Despite being disturbed and deeply shaken by the incident, Reeves nonetheless insisted on the responsibility of bringing Bennie to justice. Bennie was subsequently captured, tried, and convicted. He served 11 years at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas before his sentence was commuted; he reportedly lived the rest of his life as a model citizen.[2]

When Oklahoma became a state in 1907, Reeves, then 68, became an officer of the Muskogee Police Department.[2] He served for two years before he became ill and retired.[5] 

Later years and death 

Reeves was himself once charged with murdering a posse cook. At his trial before Judge Parker, Reeves claimed to have shot the man by mistake while cleaning his gun; he was represented by former United States Attorney W. H. H. Clayton, who was a colleague and friend. Reeves was eventually believed and acquitted, possibly based on his exceptional record.[10]

Reeves' health began to fail further after retiring. He died of Bright's disease (nephritis) on January 12, 1910.[5] 

Family and descendants 

Reeves was married twice and had eleven children. In 1864 he married Nellie Jennie (d. 1896) and after her death Winnie Sumter (1900–1910). His children were named Newland, Benjamin, George, Lula, Robert, Sally, Edgar, Bass Jr., Harriet, Homer and Alice.[5][6][7][8]

He was a great-uncle of Paul L. Brady, who became the first black man appointed as a federal administrative law judge in 1972.[11]

His great-great-great-grandson is National Hockey League player Ryan Reaves.[12] Ryan Reaves's grandfather switched it to Reaves with a A.[13]

References 

 Burton, Art T. (2008). Black Gun, Silver Star: The Life and Legend of Frontier Marshal Bass Reeves. Lincoln, Nebraska: U of Nebraska Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 9780803205413.

 Burton, Art T. (May–June 1999). "The Legacy of Bass Reeves: Deputy United States Marshal". The Crisis. 106 (3): 38–42. ISSN 0011-1422.

 Burton, Art T. (2008). Black Gun, Silver Star: The Life and Legend of Frontier Marshal Bass Reeves. Lincoln, Nebraska: U of Nebraska Press. pp. 21–23. ISBN 9780803205413.

 "Bass Reeves - Black Hero Marshal". Legendsofamerica.com. Retrieved June 9, 2016.

 "Bass Reeves, the Most Feared U.S. Deputy Marshal". The Norman Transcript. May 3, 2007. Archived from the original on September 7, 2012. Retrieved August 31, 2016.

 "United States Census, 1870". FamilySearch.org. p. 10, family 75, NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.); FHL microfilm 545,550. Retrieved April 1, 2016. Bass Reeves, Arkansas, United States

 "United States Census, 1880". FamilySearch.org. enumeration district ED 50, sheet 582A, NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.), roll 0042; FHL microfilm 1,254,042. Retrieved April 1, 2016. Bass Reeves, Van Buren, Crawford, Arkansas, United States

 "United States Census, 1900". FamilySearch.org. citing sheet 20B, family 468, NARA microfilm publication T623 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.); FHL microfilm 1,241,853. Retrieved April 1, 2016. Bass Reeves, Muscogee (part of M K & T Railway) Muscogee, Creek Nation, Natives Territory, United States

 "Deputy U.S. Marshal Bass Reeves". U.S. Marshals Museum. U.S. Marshals Museum, Inc. Archived from the original on March 2, 2014. Retrieved August 27, 2013.

 Burton, Arthur; Art T. Burton (2006). Black Gun, Silver Star: The Life and Legend of Frontier Marshal Bass Reeves. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 139–148. ISBN 978-0-8032-1338-8.

 "Judge Paul L. Brady Retires from Job Safety Commission" Archived February 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. press release: United States Occupational Safety and Health Review Committee. April 15, 1997. Retrieved August 13, 2007.

 Gold-Smith, Josh. "Reaves putting Kane feud aside, joining him for 'much bigger cause'". theScore.com.

 https://andscape.com/features/rangers-winger-ryan-reaves-discovers-the-history-behind-the-family-name/. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

 Morgan, Thad (August 31, 2018). "Was the Real Lone Ranger a Black Man?". History. Retrieved November 27, 2019.

 LaCapria, Kim (February 13, 2019). "Was the Original 'Lone Ranger' a Black Man?". TruthOrFiction.com. Retrieved May 27, 2020.

 Grams, Martin Jr. "Bass Reeves and The Lone Ranger: Debunking the Myth, Part 1". Retrieved May 27, 2020.

 Goforth, Dylan (November 11, 1977). "Bridge to be renamed in tribute to famed lawman". Muskogee Phoenix. Retrieved August 6, 2013.

 "Statue of U.S. marshal to travel from Oklahoma to Arkansas Wednesday", Associated Press in The Oklahoman, May 16, 2012 (pay site).

IMDb Gunslingers, "Bass Reeves - The Real Lone Ranger"

 "How It's Made: Resin Figurines". science.discovery.com. Science Channel. Archived from the original on September 22, 2013. Retrieved June 19, 2014.

 The Murder of Jesse James at IMDb

 IMDb Drunk History, Oklahoma

 IMDb Wyonna Earp, Everybody Knows

 IMDb Greenleaf, The Royal Family

 "Watchmen on IMDb". IMDb.

 IMDb Justified, Cut Tiles

 "In a New Series, 'Around the World in 80 Days' Gets More Worldly". The New York Times.

 Petski, Denise (September 9, 2021). "David Oyelowo To Star In 'Bass Reeves' Limited Series From Taylor Sheridan As Part Of Yoruba Saxon Overall Deal With ViacomCBS & MTV Entertainment Studios". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved June 29, 2022.

 Petski, Denise (May 18, 2022). "'Yellowstone' Spinoff '1883' Will Continue With Bass Reeves Story At Paramount+". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved June 29, 2022.

 "Mini About Hero Lawman Bass Reeves In Works At HBO With Morgan Freeman, Lori McCreary & James Pickens Producing". Deadline.com. May 18, 2015. Retrieved January 25, 2017.

 Grobar, Matt (June 29, 2022). "Bass Reeves Series 'Twin Territories' From Morgan Freeman's Revelations & 'Hand Of God' Creator Ben Watkins In Works At Amazon". Deadline.com. Retrieved June 29, 2022.

 "'The Harder They Fall' Director Jeymes Samuel on New Netflix Western". Variety. October 13, 2021. Retrieved November 9, 2021.

 Hell On The Border at IMDb

 N'Duka, Amanda (April 20, 2018). "Amazon Studios Lands Biopic on Bass Reeves, First Black U.S. Deputy Marshal, From 'The Rider' Helmer Chloé Zhao". Deadline. Retrieved May 12, 2018.

 "U.S. Marshal Bass Reeves featured in new Netflix film". 5newsonline.com. July 6, 2021. Retrieved October 26, 2021.

 O'Neal, Sean (July 3, 2021). "'The Harder They Fall' Is About to Bring New Excitement to the Old-school Western". Texas Monthly. Retrieved October 26, 2021.

 "Isaiah Washington To Mark Feature Directorial Debut With 'Corsicana' Western". Deadline. September 25, 2020. Retrieved July 23, 2022.

 "2019 National Black Theatre Festival Brochure" (PDF). North Carolina Black Repertory Company. June 11, 2019. pp. 5, 9. Retrieved March 16, 2022.

"Faction Lawmen - All Unit Cards" (PDF). Wild West Exodus. Retrieved April 14, 2022.

 "Western Legends". Board Game Geek. Retrieved April 14, 2022.

 "Cartaventura Oklahoma". BoardGameGeek. Retrieved April 14, 2022.

 "Hall of Great Westerners". National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. Retrieved November 22, 2019.

 "THE LEGEND OF BASS REEVES". Kirkus Reviews. August 8, 2006. Retrieved October 14, 2022.

Socrates against democracy?

 WHY SOCRATES HATED DEMOCRACY 

We are used to thinking very highly of democracy – and by extension, of Ancient Athens, the civilisation that gave rise to it. The Parthenon has become almost a byword for democratic values, which is why so many leaders of democracies like to be photographed among its ruins. 

It’s therefore very striking to discover that one of Ancient Greece’s great achievements, Philosophy, was highly suspicious of its other achievement, Democracy.

In the dialogues of Plato, the founding father of Greek Philosophy – Socrates – is portrayed as hugely pessimistic about the whole business of democracy. In Book Six of The Republic, Plato describes Socrates falling into conversation with a character called Adeimantus and trying to get him to see the flaws of democracy by comparing a society to a ship. If you were heading out on a journey by sea, asks Socrates, who would you ideally want deciding who was in charge of the vessel? Just anyone or people educated in the rules and demands of seafaring? The latter of course, says Adeimantus, so why then, responds Socrates, do we keep thinking that any old person should be fit to judge who should be a ruler of a country?

Socrates’s point is that voting in an election is a skill, not a random intuition. And like any skill, it needs to be taught systematically to people. Letting the citizenry vote without an education is as irresponsible as putting them in charge of a trireme sailing to Samos in a storm.

Socrates was to have first hand, catastrophic experience of the foolishness of voters. In 399 BC, the philosopher was put on trial on trumped up charges of corrupting the youth of Athens. A jury of 500 Athenians was invited to weigh up the case and decided by a narrow margin that the philosopher was guilty. He was put to death by hemlock in a process which is, for thinking people, every bit as tragic as Jesus’s condemnation has been for Christians. 

Crucially, Socrates was not elitist in the normal sense. He didn’t believe that a narrow few should only ever vote. He did, however, insist that only those who had thought about issues rationally and deeply should be let near a vote.

We have forgotten this distinction between an intellectual democracy and a democracy by birthright. We have given the vote to all without connecting it to that of wisdom. And Socrates knew exactly where that would lead: to a system the Greeks feared above all, demagoguery.

dēmos ‘the people’ + agōgos ‘leading

Ancient Athens had painful experience of demagogues, for example, the louche figure of Alcibiades, a rich, charismatic, smooth-talking wealthy man who eroded basic freedoms and helped to push Athens to its disastrous military adventures in Sicily. Socrates knew how easily people seeking election could exploit our desire for easy answers. He asked us to imagine an election debate between two candidates, one who was like a doctor and the other who was like a sweet shop owner. The sweet shop owner would say of his rival:

Look, this person here has worked many evils on you. He hurts you, gives you bitter potions and tells you not to eat and drink whatever you like. He’ll never serve you feasts of many and varied pleasant things like I will.

Socrates asks us to consider the audience response:

Do you think the doctor would be able to reply effectively? The true answer – ‘I cause you trouble, and go against you desires in order to help you’ would cause an uproar among the voters, don’t you think?

We have forgotten all about Socrates’s salient warnings against democracy. We have preferred to think of democracy as an unambiguous good – rather than a process that is only ever as effective as the education system that surrounds it. As a result, we have elected many sweet shop owners, and very few doctors. 

School of life