On Worship according to the Holy Scriptures

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WORSHIP "Worship" (Proskuneo /Shachah). Different levels of meaning in scripture. (***RDB FILE. Referenced in TRINDEX***)

"Worship" - Proskuneo (Greek) - Shachah (Hebrew) The title "God" or "god" was primarily used to indicate the position of an individual and not necessarily his nature. That is why it was also applied in the Bible to godly men and faithful angels - see BOWGOD study - who have different natures but nevertheless held high positions of authority -. For example, Moses was made elohim ("God" or "god") to Pharaoh (Ex. 7:1).

Obviously Moses was not given the nature of the only true God (nor even the nature of angels); he still kept the same human nature as Pharaoh himself. But Moses, who had been in an inferior position of authority to Pharaoh, was raised by God to a superior position of authority (elohim - "a mighty one") over other men.

We are not to "worship" angels when they are acting solely in the capacity of fellow servants (or equal positions of authority) with Christian humans (Rev. 22:9), even though angels are of a higher nature than men!

"The name ['angels'] does not denote their nature but their office [position] as messengers." And, "As to their nature, they are spirits." - pp. 38, 39, Today's Dictionary of the Bible, 1982, Bethany House Publishing.

Also see p. 37, New Bible Dictionary, 2nd ed., Tyndale House Publishers, 1982; and p. 47, W. E. Vine's An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words.

And the nature of God himself is spirit - Today's Dictionary of the Bible, p. 593. Even famed trinity-defender Dr. Walter Martin tells us, "God's nature has always been declared to be that of pure spirit....(John 4:24 - Greek)." - KOTC, p. 202. Also see p. 427, New Bible Dictionary (2nd ed.) and QUAL-15.

So, in the sense of the word "nature," as used above in the trinitarian Today's Dictionary of the Bible, Jehovah, his angels, and certain Christian humans when resurrected to heaven share the same nature. That is, they are all composed of Spirit. Nevertheless, we still understand that the power, wisdom, etc. of Jehovah is infinitely greater than that of these other heavenly spirit persons. We can see, then, that one's nature does not necessarily determine his position of authority or whether he should be "worshiped."

The Greek word proskuneo (or proskyneo) is defined in the 1971 trinitarian United Bible Societies' A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament, p. 154: "[Proskuneo] worship; fall down and worship, kneel, bow low, fall at another's feet."

Even the extremely trinitarian W. E. Vine writes in his An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, p. 1247:

"PROSKUNEO ... to make obeisance, do reverence to (from pros, towards, and kuneo, to kiss), is the most frequent word rendered 'to worship'. It is used for an act of homage or reverence (a) to God ...; (b) to Christ ...; (c) to a man, Matt. 18:26." ("Obeisance," of course, shows "respect, submission, or reverence" - Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1961.)

Noted Bible scholar J. H. Thayer defines proskuneo:

"prop. to kiss the hand to (towards) one, in token of reverence ... hence in the N. T. by kneeling or prostration to do homage (to one) or make obeisance, whether in order to express respect or to make supplication. It is used a. of homage shown to men of superior rank [position] ... Rev. 3:9 .... b. of homage rendered to God and the ascended Christ, to heavenly beings [angels]" - p. 548, Thayer's Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Baker Book House Publ., 1977.

The Hebrew word most often translated "worship" is shachah, and it is usually rendered as proskuneo in the Greek Septuagint version of the Old Testament. Unger and White say of this word: "Shachah ... 'to worship, prostrate oneself, bow down.'" And, "The act of bowing down in homage done before a superior [in rank] or a ruler. Thus David 'bowed' himself [shachah] before Saul (1 Sam. 24:8). Sometimes it is a social or economic superior to whom one bows, as when Ruth 'bowed' [shachah] to the ground before Boaz (Ruth 2:10)." - Nelson's Expository Dictionary of the Old Testament, 1980, Thomas Nelson Publ., p. 482.

Perhaps the most famous Biblical Hebrew scholar of all, Gesenius, tells us in Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament, p. 813, (#7812), 'Shachah':

"(1) to prostrate oneself before anyone out of honor .... Those who used this mode of salutation fell on their knees and touched the ground with the forehead ..., and this honor was not only shown to superiors, such as kings and princes, 2 Sam. 9:8; but also to equals; Gen. 23:7."

The act described by proskuneo (or shachah) was of bowing or kneeling, and it generally indicated an act of respect and a display of one's willingness to submit to or serve another person who occupied a superior position, regardless of his nature (somewhat similar to a salute in the military today). It was done, of course, in its very highest sense to God alone, but it was also done, in a lower sense of the same word, to kings, angels, prophets, etc. That is why proskuneo is translated "prostrated himself before" at Matt. 18:26 NASB, even though the KJV uses "worship" there. Notice how other trinitarian translations render that verse (RSV and NIV for example) where a servant "worships" [proskuneo] his master. And that is why, in the account of the man blind from birth whom Jesus healed, we see that man giving proskuneo to Jesus at John 9:38. The ASV, in a footnote for John 9:38, says,

"The Greek word [proskuneo] denotes an act of reverence, whether paid to a creature, as here [Jesus], or to the Creator."

At Rev. 3:9 Jesus shows the position of authority he will give to some of his human followers when he says he will make people "worship before thy feet." - KJV. The word used there is proskuneo! The ASV again adds this footnote: "The Greek word [proskuneo] denotes an act of reverence whether paid to a creature, or the Creator."*

We can see the same thing at Is. 45:14. Here God, speaking to his faithful human followers of the last days, says: "and they [the rest of surviving mankind] ... shall fall down [shachah - 'worship'] unto thee, they shall make supplication [palal - 'pray': see The Jerusalem Bible and AT] unto thee, saying, Surely God is in thee [see IN/WITH study]; and there is none else." - KJV, ASV. - cf. Is. 49:23. Even the ancient Greek translation, the Septuagint, says at Is. 45:14 - "and they ... shall [proskuneo - 'worship'] thee and make supplication [proseuchomai - 'pray'] to thee; and there is no God beside thee." (Notice all the trinitarian-type "evidence" here that could "prove" these men are "equally God"!) - The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament, Greek and English, Zondervan Ed., 1970.

So we see that the king of Israel, for example, could receive proskuneo or shachah in his role as a representative of a higher authority (Jehovah), or he could receive it in recognition of his own earthly position of authority that God allowed him to have. For example, at 2 Sam. 14:22 Joab "worships" 'my Lord' (King David). The Hebrew word shachah translated in most places in the Bible as "worship" is here translated "did obeisance" in the RSV. In the Greek Septuagint the word used is proskuneo. So, in spite of their both sharing the same fleshly human nature, one gave the other proskuneo or shachah!

We see the same thing at 1 Kings 1:16, 31 when Bathsheba gives shachah to her husband and king, David. Not only does the Septuagint use proskuneo for these verses (3 Kings 1:16, 31 in Sept.), but at verses 21 and 31 she calls David, "The Lord of me" ("My Lord").

Angels, when acting as representatives of Jehovah and speaking his words, could properly receive proskuneo as representatives for a superior authority.

Gen. 18:2 uses shachah to describe what Abraham did to the angels (p. 37, New Bible Dictionary, 2nd ed., 1982, Tyndale House Publ.) who came to him, and what Lot did to two of those same angels (shachah) is described at Gen. 19:1. (Also see Unger and White, pp. 7 and 482.) Proskuneo is also used in these two scriptures in the Septuagint. Also see Numbers 22:31: Balaam "worshiped" (proskuneo - Sept. and shachah ["fell flat" - KJV] - Hebrew OT) the ANGEL and the angel accepted it! (Unlike Rev. 19:10 and 22:8, 9.)

"The angel of the Lord [angel of Jehovah/Yahweh], sometimes 'the angel of God' or 'my (or 'his') angel,' is represented in Scripture as a heavenly being sent by God to deal with men as his personal spokesman. In many passages he is virtually identified with God and speaks not merely in the name of God but as God in the first person singular." - New Bible Dictionary, p. 38.


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"Angel of the Lord [angel of Yahweh/Jehovah] - occurs many times in the Old Testament, where in almost every instance it means a supernatural personage to be distinguished from Jehovah ....Some feel the pre-incarnate Christ is meant." - p. 39. "Titles and Names of Jesus Christ. .... Angel of the Lord (Ex. 3:2; Judg. 13: 15-18)". - p. 624, Today's Dictionary of the Bible, Bethany House Publ., 1982.

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"Angel of the Lord. ...Christ's visible form before the incarnation." - p. 40, Smith's Bible Dictionary, Hendrickson Publ.

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"The Angel of the LORD.... Traditional Christian interpretation has held that this 'angel' was a preincarnate manifestation of Christ as God's Messenger-Servant." - footnote for Gen. 16:7 in the highly trinitarian The NIV Study Bible by Zondervan Publishing.

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"[The angel of Yahweh/Jehovah] is a heavenly being given a particular task by Yahweh, behind whom the angel's personality entirely disappears.... He is virtually a hypostatic appearance of Yahweh, the personified help of God for Israel.... Sometimes we cannot distinguish between Yahweh and his angel. When the reference is to Yahweh without regard to man, 'Yahweh' is used. Where man observes him, the expression 'the angel of Yahweh' is used. This preserves Yahweh's transcendence (e.g. Gen. 18 [Abraham "worships" angel(s) - see above]; Exod. 23:20-23). Because Yahweh's holiness could have destroyed Israel, only his angel was to go with the people." - [see 1 John 4:12; John 6:46.] - The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, Vol. 1, p. 101, Zondervan Publ., 1986.

And yet, the Israelites could, and did, say that God was with them (Josh. 1:17; 1 Sam. 10:7), that God had come (Ex. 20:20), that Jehovah was in their midst (Ex. 17:7; 29:43, 45-46), that Jehovah was leading them (Ex. 13:21) when it was Jehovah's angel (Ex. 14:19) who was actually, physically present, representing Jehovah.

So we see Abraham giving shachah to the Angel of Jehovah (as the direct, perfect representative of Yahweh) and the two other angels who accompany him. The Angel of Jehovah stays with Abraham (who calls him "Jehovah" since he is perfectly speaking God's thoughts to Abraham - possibly like speaking into a telephone while speaking to someone who isn't actually physically present) while the two angels approach Lot, who gives them shachah also.

Proskuneo is given to a person who (1) represents someone else in a position of higher authority or (2) occupies a position of higher authority himself (e.g., a king). Sometimes, of course, we may find a person who may receive shachah/proskuneo for both of these reasons. 1 Chron. 29:20 tells us, "And all the assembly blessed Jehovah, the God of their fathers, and bowed down their heads and worshipped [shachah] Jehovah and the king [David]." - ASV - cf. Septuagint (proskuneo). The highest position of authority, of course, is that occupied by God (the Father, Jehovah, who alone is Most High - Ps. 83:18 - and who alone deserves worship [in the most high sense of that word].)

So, in the respect that the highest authority deserves absolute, exclusive devotion, loyalty, etc., we can see that He alone deserves exclusive proskuneo - in the highest sense. And yet, as we have seen, proskuneo, in a subordinate sense, is sometimes delivered to His representatives and to those He has placed in authority.

That proskuneo is not given to someone merely because he has a higher nature is also shown at Rev. 22:8, 9. Speaking on his own behalf as a creature with a higher nature, the angel stops John from rendering him proskuneo. Who would know better than John that only God deserves exclusive proskuneo (in the highest sense of the word)? Why would John do such a seemingly ridiculous thing? Obviously he did it because he thought the angel was acting at that moment in the capacity of the direct representative of God (see Robertson's Word Pictures, Vol. vi, p. 450) and thus should be given proskuneo! We cannot possibly believe that the Apostle John was unaware of exactly who should receive proskuneo! - -especially since he had been told, just a short time before, exactly the same thing-Rev. 19:10

No, John knew it was an angel, and knew that, unless that angel was in the role of a direct representative of God, he should not receive proskuneo in the highest sense! The only proper conclusion there can be is that at Rev. 22:8 John believed the angel had now assumed the role of the direct representative of God.

Notice what the angel, a person of superior nature to John, told him: "You must not do that! [You must not offer me proskuneo even though I am an angel and of a superior nature.] I am a fellow servant with you" - Rev. 22:8, RSV. Since his position (at that moment) was the same as John's ("a fellow servant"), even though he had a higher nature, he must not be given proskuneo in its highest sense!

If someone were to give the President of the U. S. honor or proskuneo in the sense of "respect" or "submission to authority," he would not do so because of the President's substance or nature but because of his position of authority. We would not give the President's son such honor or proskuneo because of his substance or nature even though it is equal to the President's. We would not call the President's son by his father's positional title ("President") nor by his father's individual personal name ("Ronald"). (God's people throughout the Bible did not have last [family] names but only "first," or individual, personal names, e.g., Moses, John, Gabriel, Jesus, etc.) Most Americans would, however, give the President's son honor (or proskuneo in the sense of showing honor or obedience to authority) if the President gave his son a position of authority that deserved it.

We also do not give Jehovah (the only true, most High God) honor or proskuneo simply because of his superior substance or nature but because of his position and authority. As Rev. 4:11 expresses it "You are our Lord and our God, you are worthy of glory and honor and power, because you made all the universe and it was only by your will that everything was made and exists." - JB.

Jesus himself gives proskuneo to the Father alone since the Father (Jehovah) is his only superior, his God: Micah 5:4; 1 Cor. 11:3; 2 Cor. 11:31; Eph. 1:3, 17; 1 Pet. 1:3; Rev. 3:12.

Therefore, we must not give the Most High God's Son (Luke 1:32) honor or proskuneo simply because of his substance or nature (even if we should be convinced that his body is of the very same substance as the Most High God's). We must not call him by the Most High God's positional title ("The Most High God," "The Only True God," - Jn 17:1, 3), nor by God's relational title ("The Father" - Matt. 23:9; Is. 64:8, ASV), nor by his Father's individual personal name ("Jehovah" or "Yahweh" - Ps 110:1; Is. 63:16; Micah 5:4, ASV).

We do give the Most High God's Son honor and proskuneo (whether you translate it "worship," "obeisance," etc.) because his Father has given him a position of authority that deserves it! "thou [Father] gavest [Jesus] authority over all flesh" - John 17:2 - ASV. (Also see Luke 1:32) And "there is no authority except from God" - Ro. 13:1 - RSV. (cf. 1 Cor. 15:24-28 NIV)

"The God" is the Father alone, Jehovah, who deserves our exclusive proskuneo in the highest sense! Since, in English, we usually reserve the word "worship" to translate proskuneo when it refers to God alone, it would be more appropriate to use "obeisance" for the occurrences of proskuneo when applied to other individuals in its lower sense. Nevertheless, we must be aware that proskuneo (and shachah) are applied to God, angels, and certain men in the Bible.

The trinitarian A Dictionary of the Bible, James Hastings, Vol. 4, p. 943, says the following about worship in the New Testament:

"Christian worship in NT times is usually offered to God as Father through Jesus Christ as His Son (see Ro. 1:8, Eph. 1:3; 3:14). The Aramaic 'Abba' ['Father'] appears to have been adopted as the peculiar title for God in the Churches (see Ro. 8:15)."

This trinitarian work, not unexpectedly, goes on to suggest that worship may have also been offered to Christ, but

"some indefiniteness attaches to this subject, partly owing to the two senses in which the Gr[eek] word [proskuneo] is used, and partly owing to the ambiguous usage of the title ['Lord']."

It further admits that although some trinitarians insist such scriptures as Mt 2:11; 8:2; 9:18; 14:33; 15:25; 17:14,15; 20:20 28:9,17; Lk 7:37,38; 17:15,16; 24:51,52; Jn 9:35-38; 20:17 prove that Jesus was 'worshiped,'

"it cannot be proved that in any of these cases ... more than an act of homage and humble obeisance is intended."

So this respected trinitarian reference work admits that the Father is definitely (and most often) given the exclusive worship that is due God alone, but that there are uncertainties that such is really the case with Jesus.

There is actually only one instance where, at first glance, we might think that Jesus is probably being worshiped in the highest sense of the word. But in reality it turns out to be just as ambiguous and dubious as the rest.

At Heb. 1:6 the KJV (and many other trinitarian translations) says: "And again, when he [the Father] bringeth in the first begotten [Jesus] into the world, he saith, And let all the angels of God worship [proskuneo] him."

However, when we look up this scripture in the Old Testament (the trinitarian New Oxford Annotated Bible; New American Standard Bible [Ref. ed.]; and Dr. W. F. Beck [Lutheran] in his New Testament in the Language of Today [1964] all refer Heb. 1:6 to Deut. 32:43), we find that Deut. 32:43 does not refer to the Father bringing his firstborn Son into the world and, in fact, in the Septuagint, instructs the angels to worship God (Jehovah, the Father) with no reference to Christ or the Son whatsoever.

So there is the distinct possibility that Heb. 1:6 is saying that all the angels worship the Father at that time. But even if the writer of Hebrews is saying the angels "worship" [proskuneo] the Son, it certainly doesn't have to mean "worship" in the highest sense. Even these trinitarian translations admit as much in their renderings of Heb. 1:6 - The New English Bible; Revised English Bible; New Jerusalem Bible; An American Translation, Smith-Goodspeed; Young's Literal Translation of the Holy Bible; The Letter to the Hebrews - The Daily Study Bible Series, Dr. William Barclay.

We have, then, a few doubtful references to the "worship" of Jesus (and no references to the worship of the "equally God" Holy Spirit) as compared to many certain commands to worship Jehovah, the Father!

Let's examine the scriptures where Jesus himself clearly spells it out for us. At John 17:1, 3 Jesus in his final prayer to God says: "Father ... this is eternal life: to know thee, who alone art truly God, and Jesus Christ whom thou hast sent." - NEB. This is certainly clear enough. Jesus tells us there are two things we must know if we hope to even get on the road that leads to eternal life (Matt. 7:13,14).

(1) We must know Jesus Christ. We must know his name and exactly who he is. We mustn't "know" that Moses or David or the Holy Spirit, etc. are equally the Messiah. We must know that Jesus alone is the Messiah (that he is not even part of a multiple, or 3-in-one, Messiah)! We must also know much more, of course, including that Jesus is our savior and king and what he teaches us.

(2) We must know the only true God. We must know his qualities and his commandments for us. We must know his name and exactly who he is. And Jesus has positively identified this only true God whom we must know: "Father...this is eternal life: to know thee who alone art truly God. - NEB" (also see TC study, "Unitized Title" - 1 Cor. 8:5,6)

There is no mention of the Son being known as "the only true God" or the Holy Spirit being known as "the only true God." What a terrible slighting of the only true God (if he were truly three-in-one)! Instead Jesus insists that we must know the Father is alone truly God. [See 'True' - The Only True God"]



This very same knowledge of true worship has been clearly taught by all Jews from Moses to Jesus (and up to today): God is Jehovah alone (Deut. 6:4; Ps. 83:18; Is. 44:6; 45:22) and Jehovah is the Father (never the Son or the Holy Spirit) - Is. 63:16; 64:8; Deut. 32:6. Archeology, history, and Scripture tell us undeniably that the faithful Jews never had any other God than the Father alone! - (see the ISRAEL study.) To know God is to know that the Father (Jehovah) is God alone - for the Jews and for Jesus.

There was another group of people who worshiped Jehovah. They hated the Jews, and the Jews hated them, but they worshiped Jehovah. However, these people, the Samaritans, did not really know the one they claimed to worship.

"... when the foreign peoples were brought in to dwell in Samaria, they brought their own gods with them (2 Kings 17:29). We are told a priest from Bethel came and told them how they should fear the Lord [Jehovah] (2 Kings 17:28). But all the probablity is that they merely added Jehovah to their list of gods because they were superstitiously afraid to leave him out. After all he was the God of the land in which they were living and it might be dangerous not to include him in their worship." - p. 169, The Gospel of John, Vol. 1, The Daily Study Bible Series, William Barclay, The Westminster Press, 1975 ed. (Also Hastings' A Dictionary of the Bible, p. 376, Vol. 4, 1988 printing, Hendrickson.)

So let's examine the only scripture where Jesus expressly teaches what true worship is. At John 4:9 Jesus has met a Samaritan woman and she quickly recognizes him as a Jew. At John 4:19 the Samaritan woman acknowledges that he is a prophet. Then she says, "Our fathers worshiped on this mountain; and you [Jews] say that in Jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship." She is assuming that she is worshiping the only true God but is questioning the place where that worship should be done. Jesus, however, tells her it doesn't matter where you worship God but how. What matters is that you worship the only God in truth.

At John 4:22-24 Jesus says to the Samaritan woman: "You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know, for salvation is from the Jews. [Remember, the faithful Jews have always worshiped the Father alone, Jehovah, as the only true God.] But the hour is coming, and now is, when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth, for such the Father seeks to worship him. God is spirit, and those who worship him must [dei] worship him in spirit and truth." - RSV.

Who did Jesus say really did know the true God? The Jews! And whom did the Jews know as the true God? The Father alone! (See the ISRAEL study.) Why didn't the Samaritans really know God? Because they worshiped others in addition to the Father! When speaking of worshiping in truth whom did Jesus say must be worshiped as God? The Father! (If God were truly three persons, surely Jesus would have stressed this "true" worship at this time: "Now is the hour when the true worshipers - unlike the Samaritans - will worship the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit in spirit and truth.")

And Jesus (as he also did at John 17:1, 3 above) tells us in plain language exactly who we must worship in truth as God: "But the hour...now is, when the true worshipers will worship the Father..." The Samaritan woman didn't mention the Father - she was talking about where true worship should be done. It was Jesus himself who identified the God of true worship: the Father.

How terrible (if the trinity were really true) that Jesus when speaking of the false worship of the Samaritans who do not know God (although they worshiped the Father along with others) and giving us the knowledge of the true worship of God would completely ignore "God the Son" and "God the Holy Spirit"! Isn't it clear from a careful examination of John 4:22-24 alone that the Father alone is the only true God? (John 17:1, 3; 1 Cor. 8:6) And that we must worship (proskuneo) him alone in the highest sense of the word? As noted trinitarian scholar A. T. Robertson says when discussing John 4:23 - "It does matter whether we have a true conception of God whom we worship." - p. 67, Word Pictures in the New Testament, Vol. 5.

The advance of Jehovah's word in medieval Iberia.

The Alba Bible, the first translation in castizo (pure) Spanish, 15th century C.E.

Making Known the Word of God in Medieval Spain

“When I journey to Spain, I hope that I will see you and be accompanied partway there by you after I have first enjoyed your company for a time.”—Romans 15:24.

THE apostle Paul wrote those words to his fellow Christians in Rome in about the year 56 C.E. Whether Paul actually made the journey to Spain, the Bible does not say. In any case, through the efforts of Paul or other Christian missionaries, the good news from God’s Word, the Bible, did reach Spain by the second century C.E.

Soon, Christian communities began to develop and flourish in Spain. With that, there arose the need for the people there to have the Bible translated into Latin. This was because by the second century, Spain had long been under Roman rule and Latin had become the common language throughout the vast Roman Empire.

LATIN BIBLES FILLED THE NEED

Early Spanish Christians produced several Latin translations known collectively as the Vetus Latina Hispana. These Latin Bibles circulated in Spain for many years before Jerome completed his renowned Latin Vulgate early in the fifth century C.E.

Jerome’s translation—which he completed in Bethlehem, Palestine—reached Spain in record time. When Lucinius, an affluent Bible student, learned that Jerome was preparing a Latin translation, he wanted to have a copy of this new translation as soon as possible. He dispatched six scribes to Bethlehem to copy the text and take it back to Spain. In the following centuries, the Vulgate gradually supplanted the Vetus Latina Hispana. Those Latin translations enabled the people of Spain to read the Bible and understand its message. But as the Roman Empire came to an end, new linguistic needs arose.

THE BIBLE ON SLATES

In the fifth century, the Visigoths and other Germanic tribes invaded Spain, and a new language—Gothic—arrived on the peninsula. The invaders practiced a form of Christianity known as Arianism, which rejected the Trinity doctrine. They also brought with them their own translation of the Scriptures—Ulfilas’ Gothic Bible. This Bible was read in Spain until the end of the sixth century, when Reccared, the Visigothic king, became a Catholic and renounced Arianism. He had all Arian books collected and destroyed, including Ulfilas’ Bible. As a result, all Gothic texts disappeared from Spain.

A slate slab with Bible text in a Latin dialect, sixth century C.E.

Yet, the Word of God continued to spread in Spain during this period. Apart from Gothic, there was still a Latin dialect widely spoken in Spain, which later gave birth to the Romance languages spoken on the Iberian Peninsula.* The oldest documents in this Latin dialect are known as Visigothic slates, since they were written on pieces or slabs of slate. They date from the sixth and seventh centuries, and some contain passages from the Psalms and the Gospels. One slate contains the entire 16th Psalm.

The existence of Scriptural texts on humble slates shows that ordinary people both read and copied the Word of God at that time. Apparently, teachers used these Bible texts as exercises for pupils who were learning to read and write. The slates were a cheap writing material, in contrast with the expensive parchment that the medieval monasteries used to produce their illustrated Bibles.

A detail from the highly illuminated León Bible. Precious as they are, such Bibles did little to spread the message of God’s Word among the people

One priceless illustrated Bible is housed in the church of San Isidoro in León, Spain. Dated 960 C.E., it has 516 leaves measuring about 18 inches (47 cm) by 13 inches (34 cm) and weighing some 40 pounds (18 kg). Another, now in the Vatican Library, is the Bible of Ripoll, dated about 1020 C.E. It is one of the most profusely illuminated Bibles of the Middle Ages. To produce such works of art, a monk might have spent a whole day creating one initial letter or a whole week preparing a title page. Precious as they are, those Bibles, however, did little to spread the message of God’s Word among the people.

THE BIBLE IN ARABIC

By the eighth century, another language began to take root in Spain as a result of the Islamic invasion of the peninsula. In the areas that the Muslims colonized, Arabic gained ground over Latin and the need arose for a Bible in this new language.

Many Arabic translations of the Bible—especially of the Gospels—doubtless circulated in medieval Spain. Apparently, in the eighth century, John, a bishop of Seville, translated the entire Bible into Arabic. Sadly, most of those Arabic translations have been lost. One Arabic translation of the Gospels from the middle of the tenth century is preserved in the cathedral of León, Spain.

An Arabic translation of the Gospels, tenth century C.E.

SPANISH VERSIONS APPEARED

During the late Middle Ages, Castilian, or Spanish, began to take shape on the Iberian Peninsula. This new tongue was destined to become an important vehicle for spreading the Word of God.* The earliest translation of Bible text into Spanish appeared in La Fazienda de Ultra Mar (Deeds From Across the Seas), of the early 13th century. This work contains an account of a journey to Israel, and it includes material from the Pentateuch and other books of the Hebrew Scriptures as well as the Gospels and the Epistles.

King Alfonso X supported Bible translation into Spanish

Church authorities were not pleased with this translation. In 1234, the Council of Tarragona decreed that all Bible books in the vernacular must be handed over to the local clergy to be burned. Happily, this decree did not put a stop to further Bible translation. King Alfonso X (1252-1284), considered to be the founder of Spanish prose, wanted the translation of the Scriptures into the new language and supported it. Spanish translations from this period include the so-called Pre-Alfonsine Bible and the Alfonsine Bible that appeared shortly thereafter, which was the largest translation into Spanish of its time.

Pages of the 13th-century Pre-Alfonsine (left) and Alfonsine (right) Bibles

Both of those works helped to establish and enrich the nascent Spanish language. Scholar Thomas Montgomery says regarding the Pre-Alfonsine Bible: “The translator of this Bible produced an admirable work with regard to accuracy as well as elegant language. . . . The language is simple and clear, as was needed for a Bible prepared for people unversed in Latin.”

Those early Spanish Bibles, however, were translated from the Latin Vulgate rather than from the original languages. Starting in the 14th century, Jewish scholars produced several Spanish translations of the Hebrew Scriptures directly from the Hebrew. At the time, Spain had the largest Jewish community in Europe, and Jewish translators had access to good Hebrew manuscripts for making their translations.*

One outstanding example was the Alba Bible, completed in the 15th century. A prominent Spanish nobleman, Luis de Guzmán, commissioned Rabbi Moisés Arragel to translate the Bible into castizo (pure) Spanish. He gave two reasons for requesting this new translation. First, he said: “The Bibles that today are found in the Romance language are very corrupt,” and second, “People like us very much need the marginal notes for the obscure passages.” His request reveals that people of his day had a keen interest in reading and understanding the Bible. It further indicates that the Scriptures in the vernacular language already had quite a wide distribution in Spain.

Thanks to the medieval translators and copyists, educated people in Spain could read the Bible in their own language without great hindrance. As a result, historian Juan Orts González observed that “the Spanish people knew the Bible much better than the people of Germany or England before the time of Luther.”

By the close of the 15th century, however, the Spanish Inquisition forbade the translation and possession of the Scriptures in any vernacular language. A long night for the Bible descended on Spain. Three centuries passed before the ban was finally lifted. During that difficult time, a few valiant translators produced new Spanish versions abroad and had them smuggled into Spain.*

As this history of the Bible in medieval Spain reveals, opposers have endeavored to suppress the Word of God in many ways. Nonetheless, they were unable to silence the sayings of the Almighty.—Psalm 83:1; 94:20.

The tireless work of many scholars enabled the Bible to take root and spread in medieval Spain. Modern translators have followed in the footsteps of those pioneers who translated the Scriptures into Latin, Gothic, Arabic, and Spanish. As a result, millions of Spanish-speaking people today can read God’s Word in the tongue that touches their heart.

[Footnotes]

These include Castilian, Catalan, Galician, and Portuguese.

Today, Spanish is the first language of some 540 million people.

See the article “The Divine Name and Alfonso de Zamora’s Quest for Textual Accuracy,” in the December 1, 2011, issue of this magazine.

See the article “Casiodoro de Reina’s Fight for a Spanish Bible,” in the June 1, 1996, issue of this magazine.

[Blurb on page 13]

From the fifth to the eighth century C.E., the Bible in Latin and Arabic enabled the Spanish people to read God’s Word

[Blurb on page 15]

“The Spanish people knew the Bible much better than the people of Germany or England before the time of Luther.”—Historian Juan Orts González

[Box on page 15]

The Bible in Other Vernacular Languages of Spain

Catalan The Bible was translated into Catalan in the 13th century. One version, known as the Rhymed Bible, was a partial translation of the Scriptures in rhyme to help the reader to memorize the text. In the same century, between 1287 and 1290, Jaume de Montjuich translated the first complete Bible into Catalan at the order of King Alfonso II of Catalonia and Aragon.

Valencian In the early 15th century, Bonifacio Ferrer translated the Bible into Valencian, and it was printed in 1478. This Valencian version was the first Bible to be printed in Spain. Regrettably, the flames of the Inquisition devoured every copy, and only its final page has survived. This sheet is in the collection of the Hispanic Society of America in New York.

Basque In 1571, Jean de Liçarrague translated the Greek Scriptures into Basque, thanks to the sponsorship of the queen of Navarre. Liçarrague’s work helped lay the foundation for a unified Basque grammar. It has been said that Liçarrague was for Basque what Jerome was for Latin and Luther for German.

[Picture on page 15]

The Alba Bible, the first translation in castizo (pure) Spanish, 15th century C.E.

[Picture on page 13]

A slate slab with Bible text in a Latin dialect, sixth century C.E.

[Credit Line]

Slate: Isabel Velázquez Soriano

[Picture on page 13]

A detail from the highly illuminated León Bible. Precious as they are, such Bibles did little to spread the message of God’s Word among the people

[Picture on page 13]

An Arabic translation of the Gospels, tenth century C.E.

[Credit Line]

Arabic Bible: Fotografía MAS - León (España)

From a grateful heart.

What God Has Done for You

“For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.”—John 3:16, King James Version.

That is one of the best-known and most widely quoted texts in the entire Bible. It has been said that no other verse “so succinctly summarizes God’s relationship with humanity and the way of salvation.” For that reason, in some countries this scripture or simply the reference “John 3:16” is often displayed at public events, on car stickers, in graffiti, and elsewhere.

In all likelihood, those who display the text feel convinced that God’s love guarantees their everlasting salvation. What about you? What does God’s love mean to you? And what do you think God has done that demonstrates his love for you?

“GOD SO LOVED THE WORLD”

Many people are willing to credit God with the creation of the physical universe, nature, and humans themselves. Living organisms are so intricate and well made that there must surely be some great intelligence behind their existence. A good number of people thank God daily for the gift of life. They also recognize that they are completely dependent on God for all of life’s necessities—such as air, water, food, and the earth’s natural cycles—so that they can continue to live and enjoy what they do.

We do well to thank God for all these things, for he truly is our Maker and Sustainer. (Psalm 104:10-28; 145:15, 16; Acts 4:24) We can appreciate God’s love for us when we think about all that he is doing just to make life possible. The apostle Paul put it this way: “[God] gives to all people life and breath and all things. For by him we have life and move and exist.”—Acts 17:25, 28.

God’s love, however, is expressed in more ways than just caring for us physically. He has also elevated and dignified us by giving us spiritual capacity and helping us to satisfy it. (Matthew 5:3) In this way, obedient mankind has the prospect of becoming part of God’s family, his “children.”—Romans 8:19-21.

As John 3:16 goes on to say, God showed his love for us by sending his Son, Jesus, to the earth to teach us about his God and Father and to die for us. Many, though, will admit that they do not truly understand why it was necessary for Jesus to die for mankind and how Jesus’ death is an expression of God’s love for us. Let us see how the Bible explains the reason for Jesus’ death and its value.

“HE GAVE HIS ONLY BEGOTTEN SON”

All mankind is mortal, subject to the scourge of sickness, old age, and death. Yet that is not what Jehovah God originally purposed. He gave the first humans the prospect of living forever in a paradise on earth. But there was one condition: They had to obey him. God said that if they chose not to, they would die. (Genesis 2:17) The first man did indeed rebel against God’s authority, and he brought death upon himself and his offspring. “Through one man sin entered into the world and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because they had all sinned,” explains the apostle Paul.—Romans 5:12.

God, however, “loves justice.” (Psalm 37:28) Even though he could not ignore the deliberate act of transgression on the part of the first man, God has not condemned all humanity to suffering and death forever on account of one man’s disobedience. On the contrary, by applying the legal principle of “life for life,” he has balanced the scales of justice and made everlasting life possible once again for obedient humans. (Exodus 21:23) The question is, How could Adam’s loss of perfect human life be recovered? The answer: Someone had to offer up, or sacrifice, a life of equal value to Adam’s—a perfect human life.

Jesus willingly came to earth and gave his life to save mankind from sin and death

Clearly, no imperfect descendant of Adam was capable of offering such a price, but Jesus was. (Psalm 49:6-9) Born without the stain of inherited sin, Jesus was perfect, just as Adam had been. Thus, by surrendering his life, Jesus ransomed mankind from slavery to sin. By so doing, he offered descendants of the first human couple the opportunity to enjoy the same perfect life that Adam and Eve once did. (Romans 3:23, 24; 6:23) Is there anything that we need to do to benefit from such a magnanimous act of love?

“WHOSOEVER BELIEVETH IN HIM”

Going back to John 3:16, we note the words “whosoever believeth in [Jesus] should not perish, but have everlasting life.” This means that gaining the gift of everlasting life is conditional. If we are to “have everlasting life,” we need to believe in Jesus and obey him.

You might wonder: ‘How is obeying involved? Did Jesus not say that “whosoever believeth in him” will have everlasting life?’ Yes, belief, or faith, is essential. However, it is important to remember that in the Bible, faith is much more than simply believing. According to Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words, the word used by John in the original language signifies “reliance upon, not mere credence.” In order to have God’s favor, one needs more than a mental recognition that Jesus is the Savior. The believer must also sincerely endeavor to apply what Jesus taught. If there is no action, any profession of faith is hollow. “Faith without works is dead,” says the Bible. (James 2:26) Put another way, what is required of the believer is that he exercise faith in Jesus—that is, he must live in accord with his belief and faith.

Paul explains the point this way: “The love the Christ has compels us, because this is what we have concluded, that one man [Jesus] died for all . . . And he died for all so that those who live should live no longer for themselves, but for him who died for them and was raised up.” (2 Corinthians 5:14, 15) Sincere gratitude for Jesus’ sacrifice should move us to make changes in our life—from selfishly living for ourselves to living for Jesus, who died for us. That is to say, we need to give priority in our lives to practicing what Jesus taught. Such a change will necessarily affect our values, our choices, and everything we do. What will be the reward for those who do believe and exercise faith in Jesus?

“SHOULD NOT PERISH, BUT HAVE EVERLASTING LIFE”

The last part of John 3:16 expresses God’s promise to those who exercise faith in the ransom provision and live according to divine standards. God intends that such faithful ones “should not perish, but have everlasting life.” Different destinies, however, await individuals who benefit from God’s love.

To one group, Jesus promised everlasting life in heaven. He clearly told his faithful disciples that he was about to prepare a place for them so that they might rule with him in glory. (John 14:2, 3; Philippians 3:20, 21) Those resurrected to life in heaven “will be priests of God and of the Christ, and they will rule as kings with him for the 1,000 years.”—Revelation 20:6.

Only a limited number of Christ’s followers would receive such a privilege. In fact, Jesus said: “Have no fear, little flock, for your Father has approved of giving you the Kingdom.” (Luke 12:32) How numerous would that “little flock” be? Revelation 14:1, 4 says: “I saw, and look! the Lamb [the resurrected Jesus Christ] standing on [the heavenly] Mount Zion, and with him 144,000 who have his name and the name of his Father written on their foreheads. . . . These were bought from among mankind as firstfruits to God and to the Lamb.” In comparison with the countless billions who have ever lived, 144,000 individuals constitute just a “little flock.” These are described as kings, so over whom will they rule?

Jesus spoke of a second group of faithful ones who will receive benefits from the heavenly Kingdom. As seen at John 10:16, Jesus noted: “I have other sheep, which are not of this fold; those too I must bring in, and they will listen to my voice, and they will become one flock, one shepherd.” Those “sheep” look forward to everlasting life on earth—the same prospect that Adam and Eve originally entertained. How do we know that their future is earthly?

On numerous occasions, the Bible speaks of Paradise conditions to come on earth. To see this for yourself, you might wish to open your Bible and read the following passages: Psalm 37:9-11; 46:8, 9; 72:7, 8, 16; Isaiah 35:5, 6; 65:21-23; Matthew 5:5; John 5:28, 29; Revelation 21:4. Those verses foretell an end to war, famine, sickness, and death. They speak of a time when good people will have the joy of being able to build their own houses, cultivate their own land, and raise their children in peaceful surroundings.* Does such a prospect not appeal to you? We have good reason to believe that those promises will soon be realized.

GOD HAS DONE MUCH

If you pause to consider all that God has done for you and for mankind as a whole, it is clear that he has already done a great deal. We have life, intelligence, a measure of health, and the means necessary to support life. More than that, God’s gift of the ransom through Jesus, who died for us, can mean even greater blessings, as we learn from John 3:16.

Everlasting life in peaceful, pleasant conditions, without the threat of illness, war, famine, or death, would surely open the door to endless happiness and blessings. Whether you will receive those blessings depends entirely on you. The question that remains really is, What are you doing for God?

[Footnote]

For more information on those prophecies, see chapter 3 of the book What Does the Bible Really Teach? published by Jehovah’s Witnesses.

Isaiah11 NWT(2013 Edition)

A twig+ will grow out of the stump of Jes′se,+

And a sprout+ from his roots will bear fruit.

 2 And the spirit of Jehovah will settle upon him,+

The spirit of wisdom+ and of understanding,

The spirit of counsel and of mightiness,+

The spirit of knowledge and of the fear of Jehovah.

 3 And he will find delight in the fear of Jehovah.+

He will not judge by what appears to his eyes,

Nor reprove simply according to what his ears hear.+

 4 He will judge the lowly with fairness,*

And with uprightness he will give reproof in behalf of the meek ones of the earth.

He will strike the earth with the rod of his mouth+

And put the wicked to death with the breath* of his lips.+

 5 Righteousness will be the belt around his waist,

And faithfulness the belt of his hips.+

 6 The wolf will reside for a while with the lamb,+

And with the young goat the leopard will lie down,

And the calf and the lion* and the fattened animal will all be together;*+

And a little boy will lead them.

 7 The cow and the bear will feed together,

And their young will lie down together.

The lion will eat straw like the bull.+

 8 The nursing child will play over the lair of a cobra,

And a weaned child will put his hand over the den of a poisonous snake.

 9 They will not cause any harm+

Or any ruin in all my holy mountain,+

Because the earth will certainly be filled with the knowledge of Jehovah

As the waters cover the sea.+

10 In that day the root of Jes′se+ will stand up as a signal* for the peoples.+

To him the nations will turn for guidance,*+

And his resting-place will become glorious.

11 In that day Jehovah will again offer his hand, a second time, to reclaim the remnant of his people who are left from As·syr′i·a,+ from Egypt,+ from Path′ros,+ from Cush,+ from E′lam,+ from Shi′nar,* from Ha′math, and from the islands of the sea.+ 12 He will raise up a signal* for the nations and gather the dispersed ones of Israel,+ and he will gather together the scattered ones of Judah from the four corners of the earth.+

13 The jealousy of E′phra·im will be gone,+

And those who show hostility to Judah will be done away with.

E′phra·im will not be jealous of Judah,

Nor will Judah show hostility toward E′phra·im.+

14 And they will swoop down on the slopes* of the Phi·lis′tines to the west;

Together they will plunder the people of the East.

They will thrust out their hand against* E′dom+ and Mo′ab,+

And the Am′mon·ites will become their subjects.+

15 Jehovah will divide* the gulf* of the Egyptian sea+

And wave his hand over the River.*+

With his scorching breath* he will strike it in its* seven torrents,

And he will cause people to walk across in their sandals.

16 And there will be a highway+ out of As·syr′i·a for the remnant of his people who are left,+

As there was for Israel in the day he came out of the land of Egypt.

The Watchtower Society's commentary on Neo Babylonian king Nebucchadnezzar

NEBUCHADNEZZAR

 

(Neb·u·chad·nez′zar), Nebuchadrezzar (Neb·u·chad·rez′zar) [from Akkadian, meaning “O Nebo, Protect the Heir!”].

Second ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire; son of Nabopolassar and father of Awil-Marduk (Evil-merodach), who succeeded him to the throne. Nebuchadnezzar ruled as king for 43 years (624-582 B.C.E.), this period including the “seven times” during which he ate vegetation like a bull. (Da 4:31-33) To distinguish this monarch from the Babylonian ruler by the same name but of a much earlier period (the Isin dynasty), historians refer to him as Nebuchadnezzar II.

Historical notices in cuneiform inscriptions presently available about Nebuchadnezzar somewhat supplement the Bible record. They state that it was in the 19th year of Nabopolassar’s reign that he assembled his army, as did his son Nebuchadnezzar, then crown prince. Both armies evidently functioned independently, and after Nabopolassar went back to Babylon within a month’s time, Nebuchadnezzar successfully warred in mountainous territory, later returning to Babylon with much spoil. During the 21st year of Nabopolassar’s reign, Nebuchadnezzar marched with the Babylonian army to Carchemish, there to fight against the Egyptians. He led his forces to victory. This took place in the fourth year of Judean King Jehoiakim (625 B.C.E.).—Jer 46:2.

The inscriptions further show that news of his father’s death brought Nebuchadnezzar back to Babylon, and on the first of Elul (August-September), he ascended the throne. In this his accession year he returned to Hattu, and “in the month Shebat [January-February, 624 B.C.E.] he took the vast booty of Hattu to Babylon.” (Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, by A. K. Grayson, 1975, p. 100) In 624 B.C.E., in the first official year of his kingship, Nebuchadnezzar again led his forces through Hattu; he captured and sacked the Philistine city of Ashkelon. (See ASHKELON.) During his second, third, and fourth years as king he conducted additional campaigns in Hattu, and evidently in the fourth year he made Judean King Jehoiakim his vassal. (2Ki 24:1) Also, in the fourth year Nebuchadnezzar led his forces to Egypt, and in the ensuing conflict both sides sustained heavy losses.

Conquest of Jerusalem. Later, the rebellion of Judean King Jehoiakim against Nebuchadnezzar evidently resulted in a siege being laid against Jerusalem by the Babylonians. It appears that during this siege Jehoiakim died and his son Jehoiachin ascended the throne of Judah. But a mere three months and ten days thereafter the reign of the new king ended when Jehoiachin surrendered to Nebuchadnezzar (in the month of Adar [February-March] during Nebuchadnezzar’s seventh regnal year [ending in Nisan 617 B.C.E.], according to the Babylonian Chronicles). A cuneiform inscription (British Museum 21946) states: “The seventh year: In the month Kislev the king of Akkad mustered his army and marched to Hattu. He encamped against the city of Judah and on the second day of the month Adar he captured the city (and) seized (its) king [Jehoiachin]. A king of his own choice [Zedekiah] he appointed in the city (and) taking the vast tribute he brought it into Babylon.” (Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, by A. K. Grayson, 1975, p. 102; PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 326) Along with Jehoiachin, Nebuchadnezzar took other members of the royal household, court officials, craftsmen, and warriors into Babylonian exile. It was Jehoiachin’s uncle Mattaniah that Nebuchadnezzar made king of Judah, and he changed Mattaniah’s name to Zedekiah.—2Ki 24:11-17; 2Ch 36:5-10; see CHRONOLOGY; JEHOIACHIN; JEHOIAKIM.

Sometime later Zedekiah rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar, allying himself with Egypt for military protection. (Eze 17:15; compare Jer 27:11-14.) This brought the Babylonians back to Jerusalem, and on Tebeth (December-January) 10 in the ninth year of Zedekiah’s reign, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem. (2Ki 24:20; 25:1; 2Ch 36:13) However, news that a military force of Pharaoh was coming out of Egypt caused the Babylonians to lift the siege temporarily. (Jer 37:5) Subsequently Pharaoh’s troops were forced to go back to Egypt, and the Babylonians resumed the siege against Jerusalem. (Jer 37:7-10) Finally, in 607 B.C.E., on Tammuz (June-July) 9 in the 11th year of Zedekiah’s reign (Nebuchadnezzar’s 19th year if counting from his accession year or his 18th regnal year), a breach was made in Jerusalem’s wall. Zedekiah and his men fled but were overtaken in the desert plains of Jericho. Since Nebuchadnezzar had retired to Riblah “in the land of Hamath,” Zedekiah was brought before him there. Nebuchadnezzar had all of Zedekiah’s sons slaughtered, and then he blinded and bound Zedekiah in order to take him as a prisoner to Babylon. The postconquest details, including the burning of the temple and the houses of Jerusalem, the disposition of temple utensils, and the taking of captives, were handled by Nebuzaradan the chief of the bodyguard. Over those not taken captive, Gedaliah, an appointee of Nebuchadnezzar, served as governor.—2Ki 25:1-22; 2Ch 36:17-20; Jer 52:1-27, 29.

His Dream of an Immense Image. The book of Daniel states that it was in “the second year” of Nebuchadnezzar’s kingship (probably counting from the destruction of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. and therefore actually referring to his 20th regnal year) that Nebuchadnezzar had the dream about the golden-headed image. (Da 2:1) Although the magic-practicing priests, conjurers, and Chaldeans were unable to interpret this dream, the Jewish prophet Daniel did so. This moved Nebuchadnezzar to acknowledge Daniel’s God as “a God of gods and a Lord of kings and a Revealer of secrets.” He then constituted Daniel “ruler over all the jurisdictional district of Babylon and the chief prefect over all the wise men of Babylon.” Nebuchadnezzar also appointed Daniel’s three companions, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, to administrative posts.—Da 2.

Later Exiles of Jews. About three years later, in the 23rd year of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign, more Jews were taken into exile. (Jer 52:30) This exile probably involved Jews who had fled to lands that were later conquered by the Babylonians. Lending support to this conclusion is the statement of the historian Josephus: “In the fifth year after the sacking of Jerusalem, which was the twenty-third year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadnezzar marched against Coele-Syria and, after occupying it, made war both on the Moabites and the Ammanites. Then, after making these nations subject to him, he invaded Egypt in order to subdue it, and, having killed the king who was then reigning and appointed another, he again took captive the Jews who were in the country and carried them to Babylon.”—Jewish Antiquities, X, 181, 182 (ix, 7).

Takes Tyre. It was also sometime after the fall of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. that Nebuchadnezzar began the siege against Tyre. During this siege the heads of his soldiers were “made bald” from the chafing of the helmets and their shoulders were “rubbed bare” from carrying materials used in the construction of siegeworks. As Nebuchadnezzar received no “wages” for serving as Jehovah’s instrument in executing judgment upon Tyre, He promised to give him the wealth of Egypt. (Eze 26:7-11; 29:17-20; see TYRE.) One fragmentary Babylonian text, dated to Nebuchadnezzar’s 37th year (588 B.C.E.), does, in fact, mention a campaign against Egypt. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, p. 308) But it cannot be established whether it relates to the original conquest or a later military action.

Building Projects. Besides attaining numerous military victories and expanding the Babylonian Empire in fulfillment of prophecy (compare Jer 47-49), Nebuchadnezzar engaged in considerable building activity. To satisfy the homesick longings of his Median queen, Nebuchadnezzar reportedly built the Hanging Gardens, rated as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Many of the extant cuneiform inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar tell of his building projects, including his erection of temples, palaces, and walls. An excerpt from one of these inscriptions reads:

“Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon, the restorer of Esagila and Ezida, son of Nabopolassar am I. As a protection to Esagila, that no powerful enemy and destroyer might take Babylon, that the line of battle might not approach Imgur-Bel, the wall of Babylon, that which no former king had done [I did]; at the enclosure of Babylon I made an enclosure of a strong wall on the east side. I dug a moat, I reached the level of the water. I then saw that the wall which my father had prepared was too small in its construction. I built with bitumen and brick a mighty wall which, like a mountain, could not be moved and connected it with the wall of my father; I laid its foundations on the breast of the under-world; its top I raised up like a mountain. Along this wall to strengthen it I constructed a third and as the base of a protecting wall I laid a foundation of bricks and built it on the breast of the under-world and laid its foundation. The fortifications of Esagila and Babylon I strengthened and established the name of my reign forever.”—Archaeology and the Bible, by G. Barton, 1949, pp. 478, 479.

The foregoing harmonizes with Nebuchadnezzar’s boast made just before he lost his sanity: “Is not this Babylon the Great, that I myself have built for the royal house with the strength of my might and for the dignity of my majesty?” (Da 4:30) But when, in fulfillment of his divinely sent dream about the chopped-down tree, his reasoning powers were restored, Nebuchadnezzar had to acknowledge that Jehovah is able to humiliate those walking in pride.—Da 4:37; see MADNESS.

Very Religious. The indications are that Nebuchadnezzar was extremely religious, building and beautifying the temples of numerous Babylonian deities. Particularly was he devoted to the worship of Marduk, the chief god of Babylon. To him Nebuchadnezzar gave credit for his military victories. Trophies of war, including the sacred vessels of Jehovah’s temple, appear to have been deposited in the temple of Marduk (Merodach). (Ezr 1:7; 5:14) Says an inscription of Nebuchadnezzar: “For thy glory, O exalted MERODACH a house have I made. . . . May it receive within itself the abundant tribute of the Kings of nations and of all peoples!”—Records of the Past: Assyrian and Egyptian Monuments, London, 1875, Vol. V, p. 135.

The image of gold set up by Nebuchadnezzar in the Plain of Dura was perhaps dedicated to Marduk and designed to promote religious unity in the empire. Enraged over the refusal of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego to worship this image even after being given a second opportunity, Nebuchadnezzar commanded that they be thrown into a fiery furnace heated seven times hotter than usual. However, when these three Hebrews were delivered by Jehovah’s angel, Nebuchadnezzar was forced to say that “there does not exist another god that is able to deliver like this one.”—Da 3.

Nebuchadnezzar also appears to have relied heavily on divination in planning his military moves. Ezekiel’s prophecy, for example, depicts the king of Babylon as employing divination in deciding whether to go against Rabbah of Ammon or against Jerusalem.—Eze 21:18-23.