On the origin of information.

The Information Enigma: A Closer Look

 Brian Miller

 

 

The first video in our Intelligent Design YouTube Festival, “The Information Enigma,” consolidates the research and writing of Stephen Meyer and Douglas Axe into a 21-minute video. The presentation demonstrates how the information present in life points unambiguously to intelligent design. This topic is central to intelligent design arguments and the ID research program. Here I will flesh out in greater detail the concept of biological information, and I will explain why significant quantities of it cannot be generated through natural processes. 

A Primer on Information

A pioneer in the field of information theory was Claude Shannon^⁠ who connected the concept of information to the reduction in uncertainty and to probability. As an example, knowing the five-digit ZIP Code for an address eliminates uncertainty about a building’s location. And, the four-digit extension to the ZIP Code provides additional information that reduces the uncertainty even further. Conversely, randomly generating the correct five-digit ZIP Code corresponds to a probability of 1 in 100,000, while generating the correct nine-digit ZIP Code corresponds to a probability of 1 in a billion. The latter is much less probable, so the nine-digit code contains more information. 

Shannon quantified the amount of information in a pattern in what he defined as the Shannon measure of information. In the simplest case, the quantity is proportional to the log of 1/p, where p is the probability of a pattern occurring by chance.^⁠ For the five-digit code, p would be 1/100,000, and 1/p would be 100,000. This measure can be thought of as the minimal number of answers to Yes-No questions that would be required to identify 1 out of N choices. To illustrate, imagine attempting to identify a pre-chosen famous actor out of eight possible people. If the answer to each question about the mystery individual eliminated half of the options, the correct answer could be determined with three questions. Therefore, learning the answer corresponds to acquiring 3 bits of information. Note that 2 to the power of 3 is 8, or conversely, log (base 2) of 8 is 3. 

Information and Biology

Information theory has been applied to biology by such figures as Hubert Yockey. In this context, Shannon’s definition had to be modified to distinguish between arbitrary patterns and those that performed some function.^⁠ Shannon’s measure was modified to quantify “functional information.” The measure of functional information corresponds to the probability of a random pattern achieving some target goal. For instance, if 1 in 1024 amino acid sequences formed a structure that accelerated a specific reaction, the functional information associated with that sequence would equate to 10 bits since 10 Yes-No questions would have to be asked to select 1 entity out of 1024 possibilities. 

Mathematically, 2 to the power of 10 is 1024, or log (base 2) of 1024 is 10. More advanced measures for functional information have been developed including algorithmic specified complexity and the more generalized canonical specified complexity. They follow the same basic logic. These measures help relate the information content of biological molecules and structures to their functional capacities. 

Information and Proteins

The information content of a protein’s amino acid sequence directly relates to its ability to control chemical reactions or other processes. In general, the higher the information content, the higher the level of fine-grained control over outcomes and the greater the capacity for elaborate molecular manipulations. For amino acid sequences with higher information content are more specified, so they can fold into three-dimensional shapes of greater precision and complexity. In turn, the higher specificity requirement corresponds to proteins being more susceptible to mutations — a few amino acid changes will often completely disable them. Functional sequences are consequently less probable, which is another signature of greater information content. This connection between information, sequence rarity, and complexity of function has profound implications for Doug Axe’s protein research. 

Axe demonstrated that the probability for a random amino acid sequence to fold into one section (domain) of a functional β-lactamase protein is far too small for it to ever occur by chance. Therefore, the information content is too great to originate through a random search. Yet β-lactamase performs the relatively simple task of breaking apart an antibiotic molecule. In contrast, many of the proteins required for the origin of life perform much more complex operations (see here, here, and here). 

 The same holds true for many proteins required in the construction of new groups of organisms (e.g., animal phyla). Therefore, these proteins’ information content must be even greater. So the probability of their originating through a random search is even smaller. 

Information and Design

This conclusion is deeply problematic for evolutionary theory since no natural process can generate quantities of information substantially larger than what could result from a random search. 

The limitation results from No Free Lunch theorems as demonstrated by the research of Robert J. Marks, Winston Ewert, and William Dembski (see here and here). It is further supported by theorems derived from research in computer science. For instance, computer scientist Leonid Levin demonstrated the “conservation of independence” in information-bearing systems. He stated the following: 

The information I(x:y) has a remarkable invariance; it cannot be increased by random or deterministic (recursive) processing of x or y. This is natural, since if x contains no information about y then there is little hope to find out something about y by processing x. (Torturing an uninformed witness cannot give information about the crime!)

The conservation law simply means that the information, I(x:y), present in one system, x, coinciding with another, y, cannot increase through any natural process. A nearly identical conclusion comes from information theory in what is known as the data processing inequality. It states that the information content of a signal cannot be increased by any local physical operation. 

In terms of evolution, the first system (the signal) could be a duplicated gene or a nonfunctional section of DNA freely mutating, and the second could be any functional protein sequence into which the gene/section could potentially evolve. The theorems mandate that a DNA sequence (x) could never appreciably increase in functional information, such as more greatly resembling a new enzyme (y). This constraint makes the evolution of most novel proteins entirely implausible. 

In the video, Stephen Meyer 6explains how information points to intelligent design by the same logic used in the historical sciences. In addition, the information processing machinery of life demonstrates unmistakable evidence of foresight, coordination, and goal direction. And, these signatures unambiguously point to intelligent agency. The same arguments hold true to an even greater degree for the origin of life. 

The only pressing question is to what extent critics can continue to allow their philosophical bias to override biological information’s clear design implications.

Primeval tech v. Darwin again.

Intricate, Optimized Designs in Insects Beg a Question

 Evolution News | @DiscoveryCSC

 

 

The pesky housefly buzzing around your head as you reach for the swatter didn’t design its own aeronautical expertise. The ants trailing into your kitchen as you reach for the spray didn’t design their own navigational systems. And the brilliant butterfly you see in the garden as you reach for the camera didn’t design its own structural colors. Insects, the most numerous and diverse of all animal groups, frustrate people and arouse their admiration. We can’t eliminate them; we might as well understand them.

Bed of Nails

A daredevil lying down on a bed of nails doesn’t suffer harm, because the weight is distributed over a large number of nails spaced close together. Spreading them farther apart and making them bigger would definitely hurt! Some species of flying insects, like cicadas and dragonflies, use this strategy against bacteria. The photo above shows an unfortunate bacterium lying dead on the nano-nails of a biomimetic cicada wing, like a scene from a horror movie. 

Interestingly, the nano-nails do not always split the bacteria open and make their innards fall out, scientists at the University of Bristol found (see also independent findings from the University of Illinois). Instead, they deform and penetrate the membrane, and also “inhibit bacterial cell division, and trigger production of reactive oxygen species and increased abundance of oxidative stress proteins.” In other words, they turn the microbe’s own stress signals against it, suspending the germ above the wing and preventing it from dividing. The scientists were able to mimic this behavior using titanium nanopillars, and found that it also combats biofilm formation.

Now we understand the mechanisms by which nanopillars damage bacteria, the next step is to apply this knowledge to the rational design and fabrication of nanopatterned surfaces with enhanced antimicrobial properties. [Emphasis added.]

See the open-access paper by Jenkins et al. in Nature Communications, “Antibacterial effects of nanopillar surfaces are mediated by cell impedance, penetration and induction of oxidative stress.” Killing bacteria structurally without antibiotics, sprays, or hand sanitizers would be a desirable strategy in many medical situations. It’s not likely a bacterium will develop resistance to this method of defense. The Bristol team believes it may also be possible for the pillars to discriminate between bacteria and stem cells, allowing therapeutic implants to work without infection.

Armored Butterflies

The paper-thin wings of butterflies don’t conjure up images of combat, but these delicate creatures face battles of their own: projectiles in the form of raindrops. To butterflies, raindrops are like cannonballs coming at them at 10 meters per second, threatening to shred their wings. What if a soldier could hold up a shield that instantly shatters an incoming missile into tiny pieces? That’s like what butterfly “armor” does to raindrops, researchers at Cornell University found. Scientists knew that wing scales are covered with microscopic bumps. In the Cornell Chronicle, Krishna Ramanujan describes what they saw in high-speed films of water droplets landing on the wing surface.

“[Getting hit with] raindrops is the most dangerous event for this kind of small animal,” he said, noting the relative weight of a raindrop hitting a butterfly wing would be analogous to a bowling ball falling from the sky on a human….
In analyzing the film, they found that when a drop hits the surface, it ripples and spreads. A nanoscale wax layer repels the water, while larger microscale bumps on the surface creates holes in the spreading raindrop.

The micro-bumps are like needles to a balloon. A shattered raindrop instantly spreads out, providing more than one benefit to the delicate insect.

This shattering action reduces the amount of time the drop is in contact with the surface, which limits momentum and lowers the impact force on a delicate wing or leaf. It also reduces heat transfer from a cold drop. This is important because the muscles of an insect wing, for example, need to be warm enough to fly.

It’s not hard to think of ways this kind of two-tiered structure could improve artificial armor both against rain and against impacts of other kinds. For the physics details, see the paper by Kim et al. in PNAS, “How a raindrop gets shattered on biological surfaces.” The authors note that bird feathers, insect wings, and plant spores all make use of this trick. Some fungi can use those raindrop ‘cannonballs’ to launch their spores out into the environment.

Fruit Fly Sensing

“Can you imagine looking for a destination without a GPS, visual landmarks, or even street signs?” So asks Drexel University about how fruit flies find food. Consider the hardware and software packed into these tiny insects that are hardly visible except in swarms. First, they have olfactory sensory neurons, as do most animals, both vertebrates and invertebrates. The data from those neurons must be translated into actions. Drexel researchers determined that the flies have a primary system and a backup system. They can use their internal compass for path integration, but they can also measure the effect of hard turns and velocity changes on signal quality.

Tracking fly movement in these zones, the team measured the interplay between orienting, non-orienting, and the ‘internal compass’ used by flies to get to their destination.
“This study shows how non-orienting movement can be an effective mechanism for finding resources when directional cues are absent,” said senior author Vikas Bhandawat, PhD, an associate professor in the School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems. “Non-orienting movements are also found in expert navigators, such as desert ants. Once they are near their home, they depend on these movements to get there. Using fruit flies, we are finally gaining ground on tracking these movements alongside other techniques used and how environments and information can alter them.”

Sea Skaters

One of the few insects that has made the open ocean its habitat is the “sea skater,” a type of water strider that walks on sea water and can even leap and somersault off the surface. Phys.org brings news from the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, where researchers find sea skaters to be “a super source of inspiration” for improving water repellant materials. Contributing to the research were scientists from Scripps Institution of Oceanography  in Southern California.

A combination of waxy surface, small body size and shape in the legs and feet contribute to keeping these insects high and dry. When wet, they can leap high above the surface to shake off extra water droplets. The team had difficulty recording their movements in the lab; “We spent hours trying to capture their natural behaviors on film because they jump around a lot.” 

The researchers used high-resolution imaging equipment, including electron microscopy and ultrafast videography, to study the insects’ varied body hairs, grooming behavior and movements as they evaded simulated rain drops and predators. The insect’s body is covered in hairs of different shapes, lengths and diameters, and it secretes a highly water-repellant waxy cocktail that it uses to groom itself.
“The tiniest hairs are shaped like golf clubs and are packed tightly to prevent water from entering between them. This hairy layer, if the insect is submerged accidentally, encases it in an air bubble, helping it to breathe and resurface quickly,” says co-author Lanna Cheng, from Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego.

Further investigation showed that only 5 percent of the leg touches the water surface, meaning that the bug is “practically hovering on air.” The scientists were also amazed at how fast it can jump. 

“While taking off from the water surface, we observed H. germanus accelerate at around 400 m/s²,” says Thoroddsen. “Compare this with a cheetah or Usain Bolt, whose top accelerations taper off at 13 m/s² and 3 m/s², respectively. This extraordinary acceleration is due to the insect’s tiny size and the way it presses down on the water surface, rather like using a trampoline, to boost its jump.”

Studying the hairs, waxy coating, and body shape is giving scientists plenty of inspiration for designing “greener and low-cost technologies for reducing frictional drag and membrane fouling” in artificial water-repellant materials. 

All the Buzz

That’s all the buzz for today. But consider the fact that none of these insects designed their own engineering marvels. They use them, but they did not invent them or “evolve” them. Bringing together the components of complex, integrated systems requires foresight and planning. Biological designs are supplied to organisms big and small by an intelligent cause, so that each being can flourish in its respective habitat, contributing to our rich and diverse biosphere.

 

Darwinism as secular spellbinding.

Evolutionary Theorizing Depends on Magic Words

 Evolution News | @DiscoveryCSC

 

 

Here is a quick tale about the evolution of the automobile.

1. Billions of years ago, a chassis appeared.
2. The chassis acquired an engine.
3. The crankshaft found a side gig as a steering wheel.
4. The steering wheel linked up with the brake pedal to form a universal joint.
5. Seats developed. They probably arose when the first hood evolved.

Now consider leading journals publishing this account after it has whisked through peer review. Is this not exactly what goes on in evolutionary theorizing? Darwinians have mastered the use of magic words that replace rigor with imagination. And they get away with it; nobody ever blows the whistle on what should be tagged a major scientific foul.

 

 New Findings About Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases

 

 Here is an example in The Scientist, a news magazine for working scientists who should know better. In the article, “Protein Synthesis Enzymes Have Evolved Additional Jobs,” writer Amber Dance explains new findings about aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, abbreviated AARS, the enzymes that attach amino acids to transfer RNAs. This important family of 20 enzymes stands between the DNA code, written in triplet nucleotide codons, and the protein code, written in amino acids. Ms. Dance recounts new findings that show several of these enzymes “moonlight” as workers with other functions. 
Finding additional functions for these enzymes is a worthwhile discovery. Some of the additional functions involve angiogenesis, meaning they can be considered as targets for cancer treatments. But the article seeks to explain how these additional functions originated, especially in the sidebar, “When these functions arose in evolution” [emphasis added]. Magic words will be shown in bold type.

• “For as long as living things have been building proteins based on the code carried by messenger RNA molecules, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases have been there.” (Where did they come from?)
• “AARSs picked up additional domains that allow them to do much more.”
• “While other proteins have adopted secondary functions…”
• “These particular synthetases have been present and available for evolution to modify since protein-based life began.”
• “But in the hundreds of millions of years that they’ve existed, these synthetases (AARSs) have picked up several side jobs.”
• “The first blood vascular system, which lacked the endothelium present in modern vertebrates, probably arose in a common ancestor of vertebrates and arthropods around 700 million to 600 million years ago.”
• “Around this same time, TyrRS acquired a glutamic acid–lysine–arginine motif that today is thought to promote angiogenesis.”
• “Then, around 540 million to 510 million years ago, an ancestral vertebrate evolved a closed vascular system….”
• “At some point around that same time period half a billion years ago, the TrpRS picked up a WHEP domain….”
• “In addition, SerRS acquired a domain unique to this enzyme, which now prevents over-vascularization in developing zebrafish, and likely other vertebrates.”

In this magic show, rabbits appear out of hats. Sleeves acquire pigeons. Scarfs arise out of tubes, and cards evolve and develop into the specific cards the magician needs.
In fairness to Ms. Dance, her article focuses primarily on the science of discovery: how these functions were discovered, and what they might mean for medical treatments to help people. But it’s pretty clear that she is using magic words as placeholders for scientists’ ignorance. They add nothing to our understanding. They serve, rather, as statements of faith in the assumed power of natural selection.

On the Origin of AARS by Magic-Word Selection

Another example comes from the Tokyo Institute of Science. They offer “A Glimpse into Archaic Protein Synthesis Systems,” specifically, the origin of the AARS enzymes. “The study highlights the possible mechanisms of evolution” that led to these essential translators of the genetic code. This team favors the magic word “appear”:

• “The evolution of this complex tRNA-aaRS system is a fascinating enigma, as the existing evolutionary evidence suggests that the upper half of the tRNA containing this operational code appeared earlier in evolutionary history than the lower half part that binds to the triplet code of mRNA.”
• “Our data indicate the existence of a simplified process of alanine addition to tRNA by AlaRS early in the evolutionary process, before the appearance of the G3:U70 base pair.”
• “Furthermore, using ‘RNA minihelix’ molecules, which are considered to be the primitive form of tRNA, we could also illuminate the ‘morphology’ of tRNA before the evolutionary appearance of the G3:U70 base pair.”

The Power of Suggestion

The word “appear” also appears frequently, along with accessory magical terms, in the Tokyo Institute’s paper in the Journal of Molecular Evolution by Arutaki et al., promising “An Insight into the Evolution of Aminoacyl‑tRNA Synthetases.” Like all good magicians, these Darwinians use the power of suggestion to make the origin of the genetic code sound possible.

This suggests that the G3:U70 pair appeared early during genetic code evolution and used as a “second genetic code” (Chong et al. 2018). However, before the appearance of the specific G3:U70, minimalist RNA–protein interactions may have resulted in requisite aminoacylation activities. The activity of AlaRS-α shown in the present study may reflect a vestige of such a primordial aminoacylation of an RNA comprising a small number of nucleotides, including the NCCA-3ʹ (Fig. 6c). In related to this hypothesis, it is suggested that the G3:U70 base pair recognition is actually a later addition to the original operational code (Carter and Wills 2018), as it is likely implemented by segments of the enzyme that were not accessible to the earliest ancestral aaRS forms (Carter 2014). Furthermore, the genomic tag model proposes that ancient linear RNA genomes possessed tRNA-like structures with a 3ʹ-terminal CCA (Weiner and Maizels 1987). A hairpin RNA with NCCA-3ʹ has also been proposed as the origin of homochiral aminoacylation in the RNA world….

The paragraph makes no sense unless you already believe that Evolution the Magician is doing real magic. If, instead, you are watching carefully to see how the trick is done, it becomes clear that the wizard is importing his own beliefs by sleight of mind, distracting the viewer with empty words. He is showing us a crystal ball with an artificial picture of a line of descent from simple to complex. He knows that the current observable genetic code is highly complex and specified, but he wants us to see a possible path by which blind molecules leaped over all the hurdles to get AARS enzymes where they are today. Some parts of the aaRS molecule, therefore, need to be named “primitive” so that they line up in their proper place in the story.

Tell Him to Sit Quietly

To understand the extent of illusion in evolutionary writing, one needs to take the magician out of it entirely, tell him to sit quietly, and watch the props move on their own. That’s what the “scenario” is all about, right? No magician was there to coax them along, telling them where to be and what to do. Robert Shapiro had a good way to describe this. Back in 2007, in Scientific American, he said this about the “appearance” of RNA in the RNA-World scenario:

The analogy that comes to mind is that of a golfer, who having played a golf ball through an 18-hole course, then assumed that the ball could also play itself around the course in his absence. He had demonstrated the possibility of the event; it was only necessary to presume that some combination of natural forces (earthquakes, winds, tornadoes and floods, for example) could produce the same result, given enough time. No physical law need be broken for spontaneous RNA formation to happen, but the chances against it are so immense, that the suggestion implies that the non-living world had an innate desire to generate RNA. The majority of origin-of-life scientists who still support the RNA-first theory either accept this concept (implicitly, if not explicitly) or feel that the immensely unfavorable odds were simply overcome by good luck.

To combine the two analogies, we could picture a golf course instead of a magic stage. An audience at the course is seated, but no golfer is out there playing. A ball is shown inside the 18th cup. The magician whispers, “See that ball? It played the course all by itself!”
Keep an eye out for the magic words in Darwin literature. Richard Dawkins said, “The living results of natural selection … impress us with the illusion of design and planning.” That’s backwards. Those who know how to interpret illusions say, “The magic words of Darwinians about how actually designed organisms came to be impress us with the illusion of scientific explanation.” Good show. Bad science.