More on calling technology technology.

 

Why Systems Biologists Now Assume Life Is Optimally Designed

Brian Miller

In my last two articles (here, here), I described the revolution occurring in systems biology where practitioners have replaced evolutionary presuppositions with design-based assumptions such as the central role of teleology. Now, I will survey how biologists have increasingly abandoned the belief that poor design in life is pervasive. Instead, they commonly assume that biological structures and systems are highly optimized.   

Expectation of Poor Design

The underlying logic of the standard evolutionary model predicts that deficient design and nonfunctional remnants of organisms’ evolutionary past should litter the biosphere. The reason is well summarized in Wikipedia’s article “Argument from Poor Design”:

“Poor design” is consistent with the predictions of the scientific theory of evolution by means of natural selection. This predicts that features that were evolved for certain uses, are then reused or co-opted for different uses, or abandoned altogether; and that suboptimal state is due to the inability of the hereditary mechanism to eliminate the particular vestiges of the evolutionary process.

In fitness landscape terms, natural selection will always push “up the hill”, but a species cannot normally get from a lower peak to a higher peak without first going through a valley.

Figure from Wikipedia of the fitness landscape. The landscape is a theoretical representation of how different organisms compare to each other in terms of their fitness. The x-axis (and often the y-axes) represent variation in traits (e.g., height, fur color), and the z-axis represents fitness. Natural selection is expected to push fitness to a peak, but that peak often is not the highest.

The expectation of poor design is not simply a subjective conclusion based on intuition, but it has been rigorously demonstrated in computational models. One such model created by Snoke, Cox, and Petcher elucidated why evolutionary processes that allow for increases in complexity must generate large quantities of junk DNA and nonfunctional elements. The details of their model are complex, but the underlying logic is straightforward. 

For complex innovations to emerge, organisms must allow nonfunctional DNA to appear and persist in the population until a functional sequence arises. Such additions to the genome could occur through a gene duplicating and then repeatedly mutating. Junk DNA would inevitably accumulate to encompass a significant percentage of the genome. This requirement is why biologists once assumed that junk DNA comprised as much as 97 percent of the human genome. 

Similarly, the origin of complex structures (e.g., molecular machines) requires countless trial-and-error arrangements of molecules or tissues until something advantageous appears. Most of the trials would be either nonfunctional or inefficient. Consequently, only a minority of biological structures and systems should appear highly optimized.  

Central Argument Against Design

The most apparent difference in predictions between intelligent design and undirected evolution is the extent to which life displays suboptimal/nonfunctional versus optimal design. Philosopher Philip Kitcher emphasized this point in his book Living with Darwin: Evolution, Design, and the Future of Faith. He appealed to examples of what he believed were clumsy, incompetent designs as his primary argument for dismissing intelligent design:

If you were a talented engineer designing a whale from scratch, you probably wouldn’t think of equipping it with a rudimentary pelvis. … If you were designing a human body, you could surely improve on the knee. And if you were designing the genomes of organisms, you would certainly not fill them up with junk.

In a similar vein, biologist Nathan Lents argued in his book Human Errors: A Panorama of Our Glitches, from Pointless Bones to Broken Genes that the “bungling” design seen throughout the human body demonstrates that we are not the product of an intelligent designer but of an undirected evolutionary process:

The third category features those human defects that are due to nothing more than the limits of evolution. All species are stuck with the bodies that they have and they can advance only through the tiniest changes, which occur randomly and rarely. We inherited structures that are horrendously inefficient but impossible to change. 

This is why our throats convey both food and air through the same tiny space and why our ankles have seven pointless bones sloshing around. Fixing either of those poor designs would require much more than one-at-a-time mutations could ever accomplish. To suppose that these living things were separately created is to view the creative agent as whimsical, bungling, a mediocre engineer, an unintelligent designer. 

P. XI-XII

Changing Perspectives

Yet, most of the examples of allegedly poor design cited by Kitcher, Lents, and other skeptics have been overturned (here, here, here, here). The remaining ones typically represent degradations of once optimal designs or appeals to the imperfection-of-the-gaps fallacy. 

Purported examples of poor design usually represent opinions resulting from armchair critics’ limited understanding of the technical literature and their lack of training in engineering. For instance, in direct contradiction to Kitcher’s and Lents’s assertions, engineers commonly reuse design motifs in new ways, just as seen with the whale pelvis. And medical professionals and engineers have demonstrated how the human knee and ankle are optimally and exquisitely designed (here, here, here, here). Engineers have even looked to these structures for inspiration in designing artificial limbs (here,here).

Moreover, most of the human genome is now known to be functional thanks to the ENCODE project. The devastating ramifications of this revelation for evolutionary theory have not gone entirely unnoticed. Biochemist Dan Graur bluntly stated the following:

If the human genome is indeed devoid of junk DNA as implied by the ENCODE project, then a long, undirected evolutionary process cannot explain the human genome. If, on the other hand, organisms are designed, then all DNA, or as much as possible, is expected to exhibit function. If ENCODE is right, then evolution is wrong. 

“Underlying Optimality Principles”

Of equal significance, systems biologists now recognize that assuming optimal design leads to the most productive research. For instance, Nikolaos Tsiantis, Eva Balsa-Canto, and Julio R. Banga developed a model for studying biological systems based on identifying “underlying optimality principles.” And in their 2018 Bioinformatics article, they surveyed leading researchers who also demonstrated the predictive power of assuming optimality: 

Sutherland (2005) claims that these optimality principles allow biology to move from merely explaining patterns or mechanisms to being able to make predictions from first principles. Bialek (2017) makes the important point that optimality hypotheses should not be adopted because of esthetic reasons, but as an approach that can be directly tested through quantitative experiments. Mathematical optimization could therefore be regarded as a fundamental research tool in bioinformatics and computational systems biology.

Other investigators have even shown that biological systems such as DNA replication and translation, embryological development, and sensory processes operate at efficiencies close to the limits of what is physically possible. Human engineering pales in comparison to such achievements.

The vast preponderance of the evidence matches the design-based prediction of optimality. And it directly contradicts a central prediction of any theory of undirected evolution. Will this evidence convince such critics as Kitcher and Lents to rethink their views? Most likely not since their faith in scientific materialism is founded not on empirical evidence but on their philosophical beliefs. Fortunately, many biologists have allowed the evidence to point them in the correct direction despite social pressures to maintain the status quo. These scientists will lead biology through the next great scientific revolution that has just

Baal: an overview.

 Baal , properly Baʽal, was a title and honorific meaning "owner", "lord" in the Northwest Semitic languages spoken in the Levant during antiquity. From its use among people, it came to be applied to gods. Scholars previously associated the theonym with solar cults and with a variety of unrelated patron deities but inscriptions have shown that the name Baʿal was particularly associated with the storm and fertility god Hadad and his local manifestations.

The Hebrew Bible includes use of the term in reference to various Levantine deities, often with application towards Hadad, who was decried as a false god. That use was taken over into Christianity and Islam, sometimes under the form Beelzebub in demonology

OOL Researchers; still sticking to their story.

 

Researchers Overlook Toxic Products in Origin-of-Life Experiments

Rob Stadler

A natural process to explain the origin of life must begin with production of its basic building blocks: amino acids, nucleotides, carbohydrates, and lipids. A new and humorous animated video, “Long Story Short, The Origin of Life; Part 1: The Basic Building Blocks,” emphasizes three ways that origin-of-life researchers dismiss reality when claiming that the building blocks of life can be produced by natural causes. I wrote about the video here last week when it premiered, reviewing the first of those ways. Now I will turn to the second. 

Production of Interfering or Toxic Products

Origin-of-life researchers stop their reactions at optimal times, and scan through the products of their reactions with sensitive high-tech equipment to find trace amounts of the product they seek. When the product is located, they claim success, publish a paper, and move on. But what about the other products of the reaction? And what if the reaction was not artificially stopped, but was allowed naturally to continue? 

Agnieszka Wołos and colleagues built a computer simulation called “Allchemy” to simulate chemical reactions in a prebiotic world. They started with just six pure ingredients (H2O, N2, HCN, NH3, CH4, and H2S). After only seven rounds of chemical reactions among the reagents, the simulation produced 36,603 different molecules that are not found in living organisms and only 82 different molecules that are found in living organisms. Thus, 99.776 percent of the molecules that they produced were not biotic. This is not only a problem of dilution of the desired (biotic) molecules, but many of the undesired molecules will cross-react, block, or otherwise destroy the molecules that are desired for life. Imagine if a concrete mixer contained only 0.224 percent of the items needed to make concrete (limestone, clay, gypsum, gravel, sand, and water) and 99.776 percent random items that are not found in concrete (e.g., toothbrushes, basketballs, Cheetos, cockroaches, and some random items that are detrimental to concrete production: sugar and sulfuric acid). In the Wołos study, this very unfavorable ratio of non-biotic to biotic molecules occurred, as I said, after only seven rounds of chemical reactions to produce rather simple molecules. With more rounds of reactions and the addition of other biologically relevant starting molecules such as phosphate, the situation grows exponentially worse. As stated by the authors:

[B]ecause the masses of molecules like ATP, ADP or dinucleotides are high (above 400 g/mol), creating them from very basic substrates (HCN, H2O, CH4, N2, H3PO4) takes 9-13 synthetic generations within which extremely large numbers of other, not-very-interesting molecules are created…

A. WOŁOS ET AL., “SYNTHETIC CONNECTIVITY, EMERGENCE, AND SELF-REGENERATION IN THE NETWORK OF PREBIOTIC CHEMISTRY,” SCIENCE (2020) 

Only a Computer Simulation?

Some may be thinking that this is only a computer simulation, not reality. However, as a general principle, prebiotic processes will always produce vast arrays of molecules that fill the chemical “space” of all possible molecular configurations, whereas life is built upon a relatively small set of very select molecules. The chemical constituents of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites provide a confirmatory reality check. These meteorites contain organic compounds produced by purely natural processes in outer space. The Murchison meteorite contained 

tens of thousands of different molecular compositions, and likely millions of diverse structures…[which] suggests that the extraterrestrial chemodiversity is high compared to terrestrial relevant biological and biogeochemical-driven chemical space

SCHMITT-KOPPLIN, P., ET AL., “HIGH MOLECULAR DIVERSITY OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL ORGANIC MATTER IN MURCHISON METEORITE REVEALED FORTY YEARS AFTER ITS FALL,” PROC NATL ACAD SCI U S A, 2010. 107(7): 2763–2768

Origin-of-life researchers conveniently overlook this unpleasant reality. They artificially stop reactions when production of the desired product is maximized and they maintain laser-focus on detecting only their desired product while ignoring the implications of the vastly predominant undesired molecules that they produced.

For those who want to learn more, my recent book, The Stairway to Life, gives a list of 12 required steps to advance from chemistry to the simplest forms of life. The production and concentration of the basic building blocks is only the first of the 12 required steps.

Over Darwinism's agenda; the spectre of teleology looms.

 The Return of Teleology to Biology

Brian Miller

In my last article I described the revolution occurring in systems biology where practitioners have replaced evolutionary presumptions with design-based assumptions. Now, I will detail how many systems biologists have given up the dogma that investigators should never appeal to teleology (aka design or purpose).

Biologists have faced a vexing dilemma since the philosophy of scientific materialism came to dominate Western thought. Life looks designed, but the gatekeepers of most mainstream scientific institutions have forbidden researchers from appealing to teleology as an explanation. Darwin’s theory of evolution appeared to offer an elegant solution to this quandary by positing natural selection as a designer substitute. Unfortunately, top theorists have publicly acknowledged that this mindless mechanism has no real creative power. But they have offered nothing to plausibly fill the explanatory deficit left in its absence (here, here).

Purging Teleological Language

Moreover, the most philosophically minded biologists have come to recognize that appealing to any evolutionary mechanism as a creative agent is logically incoherent. For instance, as David Hanke states in his essay, “Teleology: the explanation that bedevils biology”: 

Biology is sick. Fundamentally unscientific modes of thought are increasingly accepted, and dominate the way the subject is explained to the next generation. The heart of the problem is that we persist in making (literal) sense of the world that we now know to be senseless by attributing subjective values to the objects in it, values that have no basis in reality. 

He then lists several statements by none other than Richard Dawkins that embody this philosophical transgression:

Somatic cell divisions are used to make mortal tissues, organs and instruments whose ‘purpose’ is the promoting of germ line divisions.

The replicators that exist tend to be the ones that are good at manipulating the world to their own advantage.

Hanke acknowledges that life displays clear signatures of design, but he insists that reality must be the opposite of where the evidence naturally leads:

The bits of living things at all levels of scale from molecules to the whale’s tail also happen to have symmetry, precision, and complexity, clues that simply shout ‘purpose’ in the inquiring mind. This has to be wrong. Because they are not manufactured they cannot have been designed, and so no one ever had a purpose for them. They make themselves and so just exist, without purpose or intended use.

He dedicates the rest of his essay to arguing that attempts to identify the intent of a biological structure or trait lead biologists astray. Investigators should instead assume that their objects of study simply exist without any higher purpose to meet some biological goal. 

Zoologist John Reiss presents similar denunciations in his book Not by Design: Retiring Darwin’s Watchmaker. He aims to convince biologists to purge all teleological language from their writing and thinking:

Life is not designed, or at least it shows no evidence of design for anything other than continued existence, which needs no designer. … To truly retire the watchmaker, … We must admit that there is not only not design but indeed not even ‘apparent design’ in the biological world, in the sense of entities doing any more than they need to do to continue to exist. 

P. 356

He proposes that biologists instead appeal to paleontologist Georges Cuvier’s concept of the “conditions of existence” in a manner that appears to be the biological equivalent of the weak anthropic principle in cosmology.

Teleology as Guiding Principle

Hanke and Reiss’s feeble attempts to expel teleological language from biology in the face of the torrent of opposing data have proven as effective as attempting to use a toy sand bucket to hold back a striking tsunami. The most astute biologists now recognize that the only feasible approach to understanding biological systems is to understand their purpose. 

This realization appears explicitly in the book System Modeling in Cellular Biology published by MIT Press:

…the main purpose of cellular control systems seems to be to guarantee reliable performance of vital functions under conditions of uncertainty (Lauffenburger, 2000; Csete and Doyle, 2002). Hence, elucidating high-level cellular design principles that could be exploited in systems modeling will require the simultaneous consideration of complexity and robustness in cellular networks…

A hope for understanding complexity in biology then is to uncover operational principles through a “calculus of purpose” (Lander, 2004) — by asking teleological questions such as why cellular networks are organized as observed, given their known or assumed function. 

PP. 20, 24

Teleology as Biologists’ Mistress

In reality, researchers have long implicitly recognized that identifying a biological structure or system’s purpose was essential to understand it correctly. German physician and physiologist Ernst Wilhelm Ritter von Brücke (1819-1892) once observed:

Teleology is a lady without whom no biologist can live. Yet he is ashamed to show himself with her in public.

The difference now is that teleological language is becoming more explicit and central to investigations. A conflict will likely become increasingly evident between those who wish to remain true to their philosophical commitment to scientific materialism and those who desire to most effectively advance our understanding of the biological world. 

1st of George Storrs six sermons.

 

SERMON ONE "May we know what this new doctrine whereof thou speakest is? For thou bringest certain strange things to our ears: we would know, therefore, what these things mean."  Acts 17:19,20 ​ PAUL, the apostle, in preaching the gospel, came to Athens; he there beheld an altar inscribed "TO THE UNKNOWN GOD." At the idolatry he saw, his spirit was stirred within him; hence he disputed daily with them that met him. He encountered certain philosophers - wise men, no doubt, - at least in their own estimation - and some of them said: What will this babbler say? Others said, he seemeth to be a setter forth of strange Gods. Doubtless they thought he was a heretic of the blackest stamp; yet they seemed disposed to hear him, before they passed final sentence upon him. In this respect they manifested a better disposition than many of the present day, who are so wise in their own estimation, that no one can advance a thought to which they will listen, unless it has first received the approbation of some doctor of divinity. Not so with the men of Athens; strange as the things were that the Apostle taught, they were desirous to know what the new doctrine was. Not that it was new in itself, but only new to them.  ​ ​Various errors exist among men in regard to revealed truth. These errors go to show how imperfect we are in knowledge - the mistakes committed in our education - the reluctance of the mind to investigate - and a want of moral courage to step aside from the track marked out by learned men, as they are thought to be, but who, most likely, have conducted their own investigations under the influence of the fear of being denounced as heretics, if they should be led to results unlike to those who are reputed for wisdom. But "if any man will be wise, let him become a fool that he may be wise," is the language of the apostle.

We honor God only so far as we have right conceptions of His character, government and purposes, and act in accordance with them. If we believe God will reward, or punish men contrary to His own word, we dishonor Him, however much sincerity we may possess. Truth and the honor of God are inseparable: and we cannot glorify our Heavenly Father by erroneous opinions. Yet, most professed Christians, if pressed on the subject, can give little better reason for what they believe, on many points, than that such has been the instruction they have received from men.  

It is a solemn duty to study our Bibles, and form our opinions of what they teach for ourselves, as we must answer for ourselves. But in this study the adoption of correct principles of interpretation is of the first importance. Without this, our appeal to the word of God may only serve to confirm us in error. 
​
The plainest truths of the Bible have been wrapped in darkness by pretending that the language of the Scriptures has a mystical or secret meaning that does not appear in the words employed. Such a principle of interpretation is a libel on the Bible. That Book professes to be a revelation; and the Saviour says, "If any man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine." The language of the Bible, then, should be explained as the language of any other book, i.e., according to its plain and obvious meaning: unless there is a clear necessity for departing from it. A strict adherence to this principle is necessary, if we would be saved from the wildest errors, and see the children of God united in one. With these remarks I proceed to:
​

THE QUESTION AT ISSUE,
OR POINT IN DEBAT
​

The question is not, whether man can be immortal, nor whether the righteous will be immortal. These points are admitted and abundantly proved by the Bible; but the question is - Will the wicked who live and die in their sins, continue eternally, or without end, in a state of conscious existence? Or, once more - Is the punishment God has threatened to sinners an eternal state of suffering and sin? This involves the question of immortality. For if all men can be proved to be immortal, it seems to follow from the Bible, that the finally impenitent will be left in a state of endless suffering and sin.
​

THE ARGUMENTS IN PROOF OF
MAN'S IMMORTALITY
​

These are mainly three, viz: First - The desire all men feel for it. Second - That the soul is immaterial, uncompounded, indivisible, hence indestructible, and therefore immortal. Third - That God wills the immortality of all men.

To these, perhaps, another should be added, viz: - "All nations and people have believed the soul immortal." To this last argument, I answer - There is no evidence that all nations and people have believed it. There is evidence to the contrary. In the "Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul" - found in "PLATO'S DIALOGUES" - Socrates, having spoken of the nature of the soul, says - "Shall a soul of this nature, and created with all these advantages, be dissipated and annihilated as soon as it parts from the body, as most men believe?" Here the fact is brought out, that so far from its being a general belief that the soul is immortal, the exact reverse was true in Socrates' day. Socrates is supposed to have believed the souls of the good were immortal, and would ascend to the Gods at death. With respect to bad men, it is not so clear what his opinion was in regard to the final result with them. It seems, however, that he thought after they left the body, they wandered awhile in impure places, in suffering, "till they again enter a new body, and in all probability plunge themselves into the same manners and passions, as were the occupation of their first life. "For instance," continues Socrates, "those who made their belly their God, and loved nothing but indolence and impurity without any shame, and without any reserve, these enter into the bodies of asses, or such like creatures. And those who loved only injustice, tyranny and rapine, are employed to animate the bodies of wolves, hawks and falcons. Where else should souls of that sort go? The case of the rest is much the same. They go to animate the bodies of beasts of different species, according as they resemble their former dispositions. The happiest of all these men are those who have made a profession of popular and civil virtues, such as temperance and justice; to which they have brought themselves only by habit and exercise, without any assistance from philosophy and the mind. It is probable, that after their death, their souls are joined to the bodies of politic and meek animals, such as bees, wasps and ants."

Surely, one would think that this is little short of annihilation itself. Socrates, after speaking of those who lived, "following reason for their guide," &c., says - "After such a life, and upon such principles, what should the soul be afraid of? Shall it fear, that upon its departure from the body, the winds will dissipate it, and run away with it, and that annihilation will be its fate?"

On this subject, Archbishop Whately, in his Lectures on "Scripture Revelations Concerning a Future State," speaks thus:

"Among the heathen philosophers, Plato has been appealed to, as having believed in a future state of reward and punishment, on the ground that the passages in his works in which he inculcates the doctrine, are much more numerous than those in which he expresses his doubt of it. I cannot undertake to say that such is not the case; for this arithmetical mode (as it may be called) of ascertaining a writer's sentiments, by counting the passages on opposite sides, is one which had never occurred to me; nor do I think it is likely to be generally adopted. If, for instance, an author were to write ten volumes in defence of Christianity, and two or three times to express his suspicion that the whole is a tissue of fables, I believe few of his readers would feel any doubt as to his real sentiments. When a writer is at variance with himself, it is usual to judge from the nature of the subject, and the circumstances of the case, which is likely to be his real persuasion, and which, the one, he may think it decorous, or politically expedient, to profess.

"Now in the present case, if the ancient writers disbelieved a future state of reward and punishment, one can easily understand why they should nevertheless occasionally speak as if they did believe it; since the doctrine, they all agreed, was useful in keeping the multitude in awe. On the other hand, would they, if they did believe in it, ever deny its truth? or rather (which is more commonly the case in their works) would they allude to it as a fable so notoriously and completely disbelieved by all enlightened people as not to be worth denying, much less refuting, any more than tales of fairies are by modern writers?

"Even Aristotle has been appealed to as teaching (in the first book of the Nicomachean Ethics) the doctrine of a future state of enjoyment or suffering; though it is admitted by all, that, within a few pages, he speaks of death as the complete and final extinction of existence, "beyond which there is neither good nor evil to be expected." He does not even assert this as a thing to be proved, or which might be doubted; but alludes to it merely, as unquestioned and unquestionable. The other passage (in which he is supposed to speak of a state of consciousness after death) has been entirely mistaken by those who have so understood it. He expressly speaks of the dead, in that very passage, as "having no perception;" and all along proceeds on that supposition.

"But many things appear good or evil to a person who has no perception of them at the time they exist. For example, many have undergone great toils for the sake of leaving behind them an illustrious name, or of bequeathing a large fortune to their children: almost every one dislikes the idea of having his character branded with infamy after his death; or of his children coming to poverty or disgrace: many are pleased with the thought of a splendid funeral and stately monuments; or their bones reposing beside those of their forefathers, or of their beloved friends; and many dread the idea of their bodies being disinterred and dissected, or torn by dogs. Now no one, I suppose, would maintain that all who partake of such feelings, expect that they shall be conscious, at the time, of what is befalling their bodies, their reputation, or their families after death; much less, that they expect that their happiness will, at that time, be effected by it. In fact, such feelings as I have been speaking of, seem to have always prevailed, even the more strongly, in those who expected no future state.

"It is of these posthumous occurrences that Aristotle is speaking, in the passage in question. But he expressly says, in that very passage, that "it would be absurd to speak of a man's actually enjoying happiness after he is dead;" evidently proceeding (as he always does) on the supposition that the dead have ceased to exist.

"The ancient heathens did but conjecture, without proof, respecting a future state. And there is this remarkable circumstance to be noticed in addition; that those who taught the doctrine (as the ancient heathen lawgivers themselves did, from a persuasion of its importance for men's conduct,) do not seem themselves to have believed what they taught, but to have thought merely of the expediency of inculcating this belief on the vulgar.

"It does not appear, however, that they had much success in impressing their doctrine on the mass of the people: for though a state of future rewards and punishments was commonly talked of among them, it seems to have been regarded as little more than an amusing fable. It does not appear, from the account of their own writers, that men's lives were ever influenced by any such belief. On the contrary, we find them, in speeches publicly delivered and now extant, ridiculing the very notion of any one's seriously believing the doctrine. And when they found death seemingly unavoidable and near at hand, as in the case of a very destructive pestilence, we are told, that those of them who had been the most devout worshippers of their gods, and had applied to them with various superstitious ceremonies for deliverance from the plague, finding that the disease still raged, and that they had little chance of escaping it, at once cast off all thoughts of religion; and, resolving to enjoy life while it lasted, gave a loose to all their vicious inclinations. This shows, that even those who had the firmest faith in the power of their gods, looked to them for temporal deliverance only, and for their preservation in this life, and had not only no belief, but no suspicion even, that these Beings had any power to reward and punish beyond the grave; - that there was any truth in the popular tales respecting a future state.

"It may be thought, however, by some, that the wisest of the heathen philosophers, though they did not hold the notions of the vulgar as to the particulars of a future state of rewards and punishments, yet had convinced themselves (as in their writings they profess) of the immortality of the soul. And it is true that they had, in a certain sense; but in such a sense as in fact makes the doctrine amount to nothing at all. They imagined that the souls of men, and of all other animals, were not created by God, but were themselves parts of the divine mind, from which they were separated, when united with bodies; and to which they would return and be reunited, on quitting those bodies; so that the soul, according to this notion, was immortal both ways; that is, not only was to have no end, but had no beginning; and was to return after death into the same condition in which it was before our birth; a state without any distinct personal existence, or consciousness. It was the substance of which the soul is composed, that (according to this doctrine) was eternal, rather than the soul itself; which, as a distinct Being, was swallowed up and put an end to. Now it would be ridiculous to speak of any consolation, or any moral restraint, or any other effect whatever, springing from the belief of such a future state as this, which consists in becoming, after death, the same as we were before birth. To all practical purposes, it is the same thing as annihilation.

"Accordingly the Apostle Paul, when speaking to the Corinthians (1Cor.xv.) of some persons who denied the "Resurrection of the dead," (teaching, perhaps, some such doctrine as that I have just been speaking of,) declares, that in that case his "preaching would have been vain." To deny the "resurrection" is, according to him, to represent Christians as "having hope in this life only," and those "who have fallen asleep in Christ, as having perished." (v.18,19.) As for any such future existence as the ancient philosophers described, he does not consider it worth a thought.

"Such was the boasted discovery of the heathen sages! which has misled many inattentive readers of their works; who, finding them often profess the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, and not being aware what sort of immortality it was that they meant, have hastily concluded that they had discovered something approaching to the truth; or, at least, that their doctrine was one which might have some practical effect on the feelings and conduct, which it is plain it never could. And such, very nearly, is said to be the belief entertained now by the learned among the East Indian Brahmins, though they teach a different doctrine to the vulgar."

Thus, then, it appears there is no truth in the oft repeated assertion that all nations and people have believed in man's immortality, or an endless conscious survivance of a fancied entity called the soul. It was not true of the ancient heathen philosophers themselves, much less of the mass of the people.

So far from all nations and people believing the soul immortal, there were a large class among the Jews who did not believe it, viz.: the Sadducees, who said, "There is no resurrection, neither angel nor spirit."

It may be replied - "The Sadducees were infidels, but the nation at large believed in the immortality of man; for the Pharisees taught it." I reply - These two sects were both extremes: the first denying any future life, and the other making a future life dependent on what we now call transmigration of souls, rather than a real resurrection: and that idea probably arose from their notion of the soul's immortality. - These two sects are alike condemned by our Lord; and his followers are warned to beware of their doctrine: see Matt.16:6-12. Both sects were corrupt in doctrine and in practice. Enough has now been said to show that all nations and people did not believe in the immortality of man.

I proceed to take up the three main arguments in support of man's immortality.

The desire all men feel for it. This argument can avail nothing, unless it can be proved, that what men desire they will possess. But men desire many things they never obtain. All men desire happiness; but does it, therefore, follow that all men will be happy? Certainly not. So, neither does it follow, because all men desire immortality, that therefore, they are immortal, or will all attain it. We might as well argue that because all men desire to be rich, therefore they are rich, or will certainly be so. The desire for immortality is, without doubt, a strong principle implanted in us by the author of our being, to excite us to a course of living that shall secure that invaluable blessing, which He designed to bestow upon man, if he would walk in obedience to to the law of his God. - Hence, the dread of the loss of it was to influence men in enduring whatever of trial might be their lot, during their sojourn in this state of probation; and, properly considered, will be a mighty stimulus to enable us to suffer even unto death, if need be, that we may gain ETERNAL LIFE.

It is said - "The soul is a simple essence, immaterial, uncompounded, indivisible, indestructible, and hence immortal. "Here is surely an array of words that might deter a timid man from investigation; but, following the apostolical injunction, I proceed to prove, or examine, these assumptions.

• 1.)How do those who take this position know the soul is a simple essence? Again, What is a simple essence? can they tell us? Or, is it merely a phrase to blind the mind and hinder investigation? Surely the phrase communicates no idea to the mind of man - it is too vague to give any instruction - it is too subtle to admit of being the subject of thought, and therefore it must pass for an unfounded assumption.
  
  
• 2.) What is immateriality? Strictly speaking it is, not material - not matter. In other words - it is not substance. What is that which has no substance? - What kind of creation is it? If the Creator formed "all things out of nothing," it would seem that man's soul has taken the form of its original, and is nothing still; for it is not matter, we are told. If it is said -"It is a spiritual substance" - I ask, What kind of substance is that, if it is not matter? I cannot conceive, and I do not see how it is possible to conceive, of substance without matter, in some form: it may be exceedingly refined. I regard the phrase, immaterial, as one which properly belongs to the things which are not: a sound without sense or meaning: a mere cloak to hide the nakedness of the theory of an immortal soul in man; a phrase of which its authors are as profoundly ignorant as the most unlearned of their pupils.
  
  
• 3.) It is said - "The soul is uncompounded." If that is true, then it follows that it is uncreated. I can form no idea of a creation without compounding. If not compounded it is only what it was: no new idea is produced. Then, if the soul exists at all, as an entity, it must be a part of the uncreated: that is, it must be a part of God. If a part of God, how can it sin? Can God be divided against himself? But how is that God who is "without body or parts" to be separated into the millions of souls that have inhabited, and do inhabit this earth? And then these parts of God often meet in the battle field, slaying each other! Horrid work, truly, for parts of God to be engaged in! But we cannot stop here. Millions of these parts of God sin against other parts of God, and are sent to hell to be tormented eternally, and eternally to curse and blaspheme the other parts of God! Such is the inevitable result of the theory I oppose, disguise it as its advocates may.
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• 4.) "The soul is indivisible," it is affirmed. Then, if a part of God, it is an undivided part of God; and there is not, and cannot be, in the nature of the case, but one soul to the whole human family. If the soul is indivisible, how could Abraham give or communicate a soul to Isaac? It could not be an offshoot from his own, for that would make his soul divisible, and our opposers say it is "indivisible." I cannot see, if Abraham communicated Isaac's soul to him, but what it must still have been Abraham's soul in Isaac, if the soul is not divisible; and then I do not see how there can be more than one soul for the whole family; and as that is "indivisible," it is a family soul; hence it follows that the action of any one man must be the action of the family soul; so if one man sins, it is a family sin, or if one man acts virtuously it is a family virtue. Again, as the soul is "indivisible," all men must have the same common destiny: say, for example, if Abraham should be lost, Isaac must be lost, for the soul can't be divided! and so whatever is the fate of the first man, Adam, must be the fate of all his race, or else the soul must be divisible; and then, what would become of the theory of its indivisibility? - Happy for man, however, we have the assurance that Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are saved, and that proves Adam and Eve were, and that all their posterity must inevitably be so too - for "the soul is indivisible!" Thus our opposers take a short and certain rout to universal salvation. Can they get out of that dilemma without abandoning their theory?

There is no avoiding these conclusions only by affirming that a soul is created for each new-born child. But if created, is it holy or unholy? If holy, does God place holy souls in unholy bodies to pollute and defile them? If souls are a new creation at birth, how is Adam's moral depravity transmitted to his posterity? as theologians affirm it is. But if they are created unholy, is any soul of man blameworthy for his moral depravity? These are questions for the theologians to solve who maintain the indivisibility of the soul: questions which are no longer to pass by any man's mere affirmation. Give us proof - "thus saith the Lord," for these assumptions about the soul.

• 5.) Shall it be affirmed the soul is "indestructible?" If so, it is because God has determined it shall not be destroyed, or because he lacks power to destroy it. - If it is the first, give us Scripture testimony of such determination. I hesitate not to say, there is no "thus saith the Lord" for any such assumption. If it is said, God cannot destroy it - I ask, did he create it? If so, does it take a greater exertion of power to destroy than to create? or, did God so exhaust his omnipotence in the act of creation that it is not now equal to the work of reducing back to its original state that which he has made? If I were to affirm God's inability to destroy anything he has created I might justly be charged with being "infidel." As it is, my opposers might more justly be charged with atheism; for they, in fact, deny Jehovah's omnipotence, which is equivalent to a denial of his being.

If to make their assumptions stronger they use the term annihilate, and say, "nothing can be annihilated - therefore man cannot be;" I answer, this position is wholly untenable, and is a deceptive play upon words. If a man dash in pieces a bottle, or burn a house to ashes, or consume a lamb in the fire, are not the bottle, the house, the lamb, annihilated? Say not, the elements of which they consisted still exist: they - the bottle, the house, the lamb - do not exist, as such: thatform is annihilated. Not the elements of which he was formed: but as man he is no more. On the subject of annihilation, however, I may speak more at large in another place: I will only add now - If "God created all things out of nothing," as the theology of the age affirms, then he can, if he will, reduce all things back to nothing, or omnipotence has ceased to be omnipotent.

The attempt to prove the immortality of the soul, from its supposed indestructibility, is without force or truth; and with it falls the whole catalogue of assumptions, with which it is connected. He who created can destroy - "Fear him who is able to destroy both soul and body in hell" - in gehenna.

The Philosophical argument for the immortality of man's soul, when stript of all its useless attire, stands thus: 

• 1. There are only two primary substances, viz: matter and spirit.
• 2. Matter has no power of self-motion, or self-determination, however it may be organized.
• 3. Therefore, wherever we see matter endowed with this power, there must have been added to it an immortal spirit or soul, that is immaterial, &c.

This is the soul of all the philosophical arguments that have ever been put forth to prove man has an immortal soul. If the position is true it endows every animal, insect, or crawling worm upon earth with an immortal and immaterial soul just as really as man; and strips Jesus Christ of all the glory of bestowing immortality upon man by his work and meditation.

Is it the will of God that wicked men, who die in their sins, shall be immortal? In determining this question, no man will be called master or father that now lives or ever did live. It will weigh nothing in my mind, what any of the (so-called) "fathers," have said or written; but what saith the testimony of God? "To the law and to the testimony; if they speak not according to this word, it is because there is no light in them. "First, I call attention to what man lost by the fall. In order to understand this, let us look at man prior to the fall. He was a probationer. For what? Not for life merely, as he was in the enjoyment of that. I conclude it was for eternal life, or, life uninterrupted by death - figured and set forth before his eyes by the "tree of life" - as death, the opposite, was set forth by the "tree of knowledge of good and evil." Each of those trees, I conclude, were signs; the one of Life, the other of Death - not of man's body merely, but of the whole man; or, in other words, "Life and Death" were "set before" him. Eternal life must depend upon the development of a moral character in harmony with his Maker. If a development is made hostile and unharmonious, he is assured he shall not live, but shall "surely die." Thus permanent disorder is guarded against in God's universe, and man had before him a standing call and warning - a call to obedience and Life; a warning against disobedience, or sin and Death. he disregarded the warning, and slighted the call - he sinned. Now, "The Lord said, lest he (man) put forth his hand, and take of the tree of life, and eat, and LIVE FOR EVER, he (God) drove out the man, and placed a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life." That is as clear as language can express it, the Lord God determined, or willed, that man should not be immortal in his sin; or, in other words, by sin man failed to secure a title to immortality, and was cut off from the "tree of life;" or, the sign God had given him of eternal life, was "hid from" his "eyes."

That this loss relates to the whole man, and not to the body merely, as some suppose, I prove from the fact, that if it related to the body only, then there is not a particle of evidence in the transaction, of pronouncing sentence upon man, by his Maker, that any penalty was threatened to the soul - supposing man to possess such an entity - or inflicted upon it. There is surely none in the context; and it appears to me, that if the exclusion from the tree of life, lest man should eat and live for ever, does not relate to the entire man, there is no evidence there that the denunciation of God against him affected any thing but his body. - It appears it was God's will that man should not be immortal in sin and misery; and this will is expressed in the text under consideration.

Again - that this loss related to the whole man, I prove from the fact, that our Saviour, in his address to one of the seven churches of Asia, says, "to him that overcometh, will I give to eat of the tree of life which is in the midst of the paradise of God." How clear the reference, and how obvious, that it is the whole man that is spoken of; and that none are to have access to that tree, or have immortality, but such as overcome. Will it be pretended that this relates to the body only? If so, then it proves that the body will not be immortal, unless we overcome - for the objector has admitted that the loss of the tree of life was the means of death to the body; and unless he regains access to that tree, or that which it represented, he must remain under death; and, as access to that tree is to be had only on condition of victory, the impenitent sinner will not have an immortal body, if the objector's theory is correct, whatever becomes of the fancied soul.

But I wish to call attention further to the tree of life, to show that it related to something more than the body. Revelation, 22d chapter and 2d verse, we read thus: - "In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, was there the tree of life," &c.; and at the 14th verse - "Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they may have right to the tree of life, and may enter in through the gates into the city." The reference here is too clear to be misunderstood; no one will pretend that this relates to the body merely. By what authority, then, do they assume it, in regard to the "tree of life" in Paradise? Allow me here to introduce an extract or two from Richard Watson. Few men have written better than he. His "Institutes" are well known among many in this country, as well as in Europe. In his sermon on "Paradise shut and re-opened," he has this remark-

“The tree of life was a kind of sacrament. As the promise of immortality was given to Adam, every time he ate of this tree by God's appointment, he expressed his faith in God's promise; and God, as often as he ate of it sealed the promise of immortality to man. - In this view, sin excluded man from the tree of life, as he lost his title to immortality." Again, Mr. Watson says, in his sermon on "The tree of life," - "It has been suggested that it was the natural means appointed to counteract disease by medical virtue; and thus to prevent bodily decay and death. This" he says, "is not an improbable hypothesis; but we have no authority for it; and if we had, our inquiries would not be at an end. For this hypothesis relates only to the body; whereas we find the tree of life spoken of in connection with the life of the soul - not only with immortality on earth, but with immortality in heaven. Thus wisdom, heavenly wisdom, is called `a tree of life, with reference to the safety of the soul; and the `fruit of the righteous' is declared to be `a tree of life,' with reference to its issue in another world. - Thus also in the visions described by Ezekiel, of the glories of the Church on earth, and of those of St. John relating to the Church in heaven, `the tree of life' stands as a conspicuous object in the scenes of grandeur and beauty which each unfold; and therefore as closely connected with ideas of spiritual life here and hereafter."

"Is it not, therefore, without reason," he continues, "that many eminent divines have considered this tree as a constant pledge to Adam of a higher life; and since there was a covenant of works, the tenor of which was, `this do, and thou shalt live,' - and as we know God has ever connected signs, seals, and sacraments with his covenants - analogy may lead us to conclude that this tree was the matter of sacrament - the eating of it a religious act; and that it was called `the tree of life,' because it was not only a means of sustaining the immortality of the body, but the pledge of spiritual life here, and of a higher and more glorious life in a future state, to which man might pass, not, indeed, by death, but by translation."

"This will explain," continues Mr. Watson, "the reason why the fruit of that tree was prohibited after man had sinned. He had broken the covenant, and had no right now to eat of the sign, the sacrament, the pledge of immortality. `Lest he put forth his hand, and take also of the tree of life and eat and live for ever: therefore, the Lord God sent him forth from the garden of Eden. God resumed his promises, withdrew the sign of them, and now refused any token or assurance of his favor."

Mr. Watson add, "The Judge passes sentence, but the Judge also gives a promise; and man is bidden to hope in another object, `the seed of the woman.' That seed was henceforth to be his tree of life."

Thus much for Mr. Watson. He did not hold the doctrine for which I contend, in regard to the final destiny of the wicked; still, there are passages in his works which look strongly that way. This truth then comes full into view, that there is no immortality in sin. Or, in other words, God has willed that the wicked shall not have immortality. Adam being excluded from immortality could not possibly communicate it to his posterity: this invaluable blessing was ever after to be had only in Christ; for God has given unto us ETERNAL LIFE, and this life is in his Son; so that "He that hath the Son, hath life," whilst "he that hath not the Son of God hath not life."
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FACTS FROM GOD'S WORD
FOR CONSIDERATION
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Before I proceed further, I wish to call attention to a few facts from the Scriptures of divine truth.

The word "Eternal" occurs but twice in the Old Testament. Once in Deut.23:27, and is applied to God - "The eternal God is thy refuge" - and once in Is.60:15, and is spoken of the city of God - "I will make thee an eternal excellency."

The phrase "Eternity" occurs but once in the Bible, viz., Is.57:15, and is applied to God - "Thus saith the high and lofty One that inhabiteth eternity."

How common to hear men talk about eternity - and to hear ministers tell their hearers they are going into eternity – and urge that consideration upon them, to call up attention. "Prepare for eternity," say they. To my mind, it is evident, that consideration is not made use of in the Scriptures, to lead men to God. I conceive it is false, in fact, to say a man has gone into eternity, because nothing can be clearer than that time will continue endlessly to any being that had a beginning: if he continues in life a relation will always exist to the period when life commenced, and that relation cannot be separated from time. To say, then, that a man has gone, or is "going into eternity," is saying that which is not true; and to urge upon a person such a consideration is to be "wise above what is written." Jesus Christ, nor his apostles ever used it. They preached that men were perishing - dying - exposed to death - in danger of losing everlasting life –traveling in the way that leadeth to destruction, &c.; and exhorted them to repent - believe - to lead a new life - to save themselves from this untoward generation - to lay hold on eternal life, &c. - but never told their hearers - "You are hastening to eternity;" for, I repeat it, that is not true, in fact.

When men die they "sleep in the dust of the earth:" Dan.12:2. They wake not till Christ returns "from heaven;" or till the last trump. See 1Cor.15:18,32,51,52; Phil.3:11,20,21; and 1Thess.4:13-18.

The phrase "eternal life," occurs no where in the Bible, except in the New Testament, and is always spoken of the righteous; it never has connected with it any qualifying terms, such as "happy," "blessed," or "miserable," &c., but simply denotes life in opposition to the death of the wicked. See Romans 6:21-23. "What fruit had ye then in those things whereof ye are now ashamed? for the end of those things is death. But now being made free from sin, ye have your fruit unto holiness, and the end everlasting life; for the wages of sin is death: but the gift of God is eternal life, through Jesus Christ our Lord."

Here life and death are put in opposition, and no intimation is given that the death of the wicked is eternal conscious being in torments.

It is very common to hear people talk about a happy eternal life - a blessed eternal life - a glorious eternal life; as though the language of the Bible were not explicit enough. Such additions to the word of God, give evidence, if we had no other, that there is something defective in their theory. Such additions ought always to be looked upon with suspicion; and, if received at all, be received with great caution.

In interpreting the Scriptures, if we would be saved from the wild fields of conjecture, and save ourselves from an entire dependence upon others for the knowledge of what the Bible teaches, we must have some settled principles of interpretation. The following I consider the most important:-

First - That words are to have their primary and obvious meaning, unless there is a clear necessity of departing from it. By their primary and obvious meaning, I mean the plain and direct sense of the words, such as they may be supposed to have in the mouths of the speakers, who used them according to the language of that time and country in which they lived, without any of those learned, artificial, and forced senses, such as are put on them by those who claim the right to be the "authorized expounders of the Bible." Such forced sense is, usually, nothing more than the peculiar notions they have been brought up in, and may have no better foundation than the superstition of some good old ancestor.

The next principle of interpretation I would lay down is, That it is a truth, from which we are not to depart without the clearest evidence, that words are never used to mean more than their primary signification; though they may be, and often are, used to signify something less. Not to adhere to this principle is to make revelation no revelation. Those who abandon it may as well admit, at once, that the common people ought not to have the Bible, for it will only lead them astray. Why should Protestants boast over the Catholics in this respect? Do not both, virtually, claim that the language of Scripture is mystical, or has a meaning that does not appear in the common signification of the words? and, therefore, the Priests must interpret them to the people? Might we not as well give our Bibles altogether into the hands of these interpreters? Especially, if the plain common sense meaning of words is not to be followed, when there is no clear necessity for departing from it.

The primary meaning of the term death is, "the extinction of life." To say that when God threatens men with death, he does not mean they shall die, but be kept alive in eternal torments is not warranted by any ordinary use of language.

What should we think of a law that says, "For murder thou shalt die," if we were told the meaning is not, that the transgressor shall actually die, but be kept alive in indescribable torments, protracted to the greatest possible extent? Would any man think he was fairly dealt with by such an administration? And would he not have just cause of complaint at the want of definiteness in the terms used to denote the punishment threatened!

The term "Immortal" occurs but once in the Bible, viz.: 1Tim.1:17; and is applied to God, "The king eternal, immortal, invisible, the only wise God."

If we were to judge by the frequency that we hear the phrase "immortal soul," we should suppose it was the most common expression in the Scriptures. You will hardly hear a sermon without the preacher often telling, with great emphasis, about "the immortal soul," as though he thought that qualifying term was all important to impress his hearers with a sense of the soul's value; not content, with the Saviour to ask - "What is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?" No, that would be quite too weak, in his estimation, and he must strengthen it by adding, "immortal." To show the absurdity of such a course, I have only to say - That which is immortal cannot be lost. Hence, the persons who use this qualifying term, have to add another, and say - lose all "happiness." Now, the loss of the soul, and the loss of happiness, are two very different things, and each capable of being expressed in appropriate language.
 

To say, when our Saviour said, a man may "lose his own soul," he did not mean that he will come short of immortality, perish, or cease all sense and life, but only that he shall lose the happiness of his soul, is, in my mind, corrupting the word of God. 
As in sermons, so it is in prayers. Men seem to think prayers have but little power, unless they spice them often with "immortal soul:" and they would probably regard you as an infidel, if you were to tell them the Bible no where speaks of an immortal soul. How often, too, do we hear men talk about "the undying soul," in direct contradiction of the testimony of God, which expressly declares, "the soul that sinneth, IT SHALL DIE." A hymn, often sung begins as follows: 

"A charge to keep I have,
A God to glorify,
A never dying soul to save
And fit it for the sky." 

The same hymn ends thus: - 

"Help me to watch and pray,
And on thyself rely,
Assured if I my trust betray,
I shall forever die." 
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How a never dying soul can forever die, it will take a poet to tell; or a very learned divine. Common people are not skilled in such palpable contradictions. The hymn under consideration is one of great beauty and excellence, with the exception of this defect. 
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The term "immortality," occurs only five times in the Bible, and is never spoken of the wicked; but is either applied to God and His Christ, or brought to view as something to be sought after, and to be found alone in Christ. "To them who by patient continuance in well doing seek for honor, glory, immortality, - eternal life," Rom.2:7. Why, I pray, are men to seek for it, if it is the inheritance of all?