Supposed bridge between land and marine mammals a bridge to nowhere.

Whale of a Tale: Straining at Mutational Gnats While Swallowing Genetic Camels
Evolution News & Views

If there was ever a prime hunting ground for evolutionary evidence in the genes, it should be in the relationship between land mammals and marine mammals. Think of the obvious differences between a four-footed ancestor and a whale: the scope of the genetic changes necessary to transform one into the other in a relatively short time would be staggering.

According to Darwin's theory, furthermore, it happened three times! Cetaceans (dolphins and whales), pinnipeds (seals, sea lions and walruses), and sirens (manatees and dugongs) are believed to have evolved their seagoing lifestyles independently within the last 60 million years.

Three scientists from the University of Pittsburgh looked into the genes for insight into this "great transformation" undertaken by the three groups of marine mammals. In a paper in Molecular Biology and Evolution, they announce the discovery that "Hundreds of genes experienced convergent shifts in selective pressure in marine mammals" [emphasis added].

A look at the details, though, gives a critical reader cause to think celebrations might be a tad premature. Why? Well, for one thing, shouldn't there be thousands? In the film Living Waters, Richard Sternberg considers the number of adaptations required to be "unfathomably complicated" to allow a land animal to live entirely in an aquatic environment. The film lists just a few categories of adaptations for humpback whales:

Respiratory system

Locomotive structures

Musculoskeletal system

Dentition

Urinary system

Cardiopulmonary system

Thermoregulation

Sensory organs

Reproductive organs

You can imagine any of these outward changes requiring thousands of genetic changes. "Just think of all the parameters that would have to be modified," Sternberg says, "and then multiply that by, I don't know -- a thousandfold, or more than that. That's the scale of the problem that you're dealing with." In the Q&A feature of the film Icons of Evolution, David Berlinski tried to quantify the number of morphological changes necessary to turn a cow into a whale (like turning a car into a submarine), and stopped counting at 50,000.

It's hard, therefore, to get excited about "hundreds of genes" announced by the Pittsburgh crew. Do these genes deal with the major modifications in whales? You decide:

We present evidence of widespread convergence at the gene level by identifying parallel shifts in evolutionary rate during three independent episodes of mammalian adaptation to the marine environment. Hundreds of genes accelerated their evolutionary rates in all three marine mammal lineages during their transition to aquatic life. These marine-accelerated genes are highly enriched for pathways that control recognized functional adaptations in marine mammals, including muscle physiology, lipid-metabolism, sensory systems, and skin and connective tissue. The accelerations resulted from both adaptive evolution as seen in skin and lung genes, and loss of function as in gustatory and olfactory genes. In regard to sensory systems, this finding provides further evidence that reduced senses of taste and smell are ubiquitous in marine mammals.
Let's grant that adaptations to skin, muscles, lungs, and sensory systems are important. It's a little odd that they get excited about "loss of function" in taste and smell that "has been suggested to result from change in prey, swallowing food whole, and the masking of tastes by seawater." That sounds Lamarckian. You'd hope to hear about how Darwinian natural selection produced one of the real innovations, like the origin of dolphin sonar, the blowhole, the tail fluke, or the cooling system for the internalized male testes described in Living Waters. But score a few points for Darwin. Not quite 50,000, but four or five.

But wait! When you look into the details of the paper, you find reasons to doubt even the examples they offer as evidence of positive selection in the genes.

First of all, they didn't really witness genetic evolution as much as convergence in the "rate" of change in genes that they assume occurred by evolution. Isn't that circular? Don't you have to believe the animals evolved in the standard evolutionary timeline before accepting this as evidence?

While past studies have searched for convergent changes at specific amino acid sites, we propose an alternative strategy to identify those genes that experienced convergent changes in their selective pressures, visible as changes in evolutionary rate specifically in the marine lineages. We present evidence of widespread convergence at the gene level by identifying parallel shifts in evolutionary rate during three independent episodes of mammalian adaptation to the marine environment.
In other words, they looked at the endpoint differences and merely assumed natural selection brought them about. Design advocates would expect the differences were planned for the aquatic lifestyle of these mammals.

Second, cases of "positive selection" appear strained. They "observed strong evidence of positive selection and a marine-acceleration in a large number of skin-associated proteins." They claim further positive selection for some lung surfactant proteins. But those are only building-block changes; they say nothing about how hairy cowhide turned into tightly-knit, waterproof armor over blubber arranged into a long, sleek form suitable for gliding in water. They didn't say how the skin took form in fins and a powerful tail fluke. They couldn't even rule out that the rate increases were due to selective pressure from pathogens on the skin and lungs in seawater.

A third problem is that the genetic changes do not appear specific to marine mammals.

All of the marine-accelerated genes under positive selection also showed significant evidence of positive selection across the mammalian tree (Supplemental Table S1), so their positive selection is not specific to marine branches. However, they did nevertheless show increased evolutionary rates on marine branches, suggesting these genes experienced a greater pressure to adapt in the marine environment (Supplemental Table S3).
Anyone see a strong genetic case for cow-to-whale evolution? Fourthly, the researchers in many cases could not rule out neutral evolution. (Here's where the camel trots in.) It's hard to know whether to laugh or cry at the imploding story:

Convergent changes on marine branches could have resulted from neutral processes or alternatively due to positive selection for the same amino acid variant. For the latter case, we would expect there to be more convergent amino acid changes in these genes for marine species compared to negative control species. We tallied convergent changes within a control set of species not expected to show convergence and chosen to match the topology and branch lengths of the marine species (Supplemental Fig. S3C) (alpaca, camel and their ancestral branch, bushbaby, human, and aardvark). As an additional control, we tallied the convergent changes between the marine and control branches (Supplemental Fig. S3D). The marine branch dataset did not show an excess of convergent amino acid sites (mean proportion = 0.086) compared to the control datasets (0.088 and 0.052, for control branches and marine-versus control branches, respectively) (Supplemental Fig. S3). Furthermore, the proportion of convergent changes on marine branches is small compared to the amount of excess changes that led to the acceleration in relative rate (mean proportion = 0.549; Supplemental Fig. S3B). Overall, we found no evidence for adaptively driven site- and amino acid-specific convergence in marine-accelerated genes.
This is sad. There was far greater evidence for "relaxation of constraint" than for positive selection (that's the kind of evolution that turns cave fish blind). There was NO evidence for "adaptively driven" change to the genes they decided had "accelerated" their evolution. Here's where the gnat flies into the picture:

On the other hand, marine-accelerated genes participating in olfaction, gustation, and muscle function exhibited overwhelming evidence of relaxation of constraint. These observations included greatly accelerated rates consistent with neutral evolution and even obvious genetic lesions and pseudogenization (e.g. GNAT3).
Obviously, genetic lesions (deleterious mutations) and pseudogenization are not going to help a cow swim. In Living Waters, Sternberg showed mathematically that it would take longer to expect just two cooperative mutations to occur than the maximum time expected for the entire evolution of a whale (100 million years vs 9 million years).

If this is the best evidence for the story of a Darwinian transformation of a land animal into a successful full-time marine creature, they should watch Living Waters and consider the explanatory power of "Intelligent Design in the Oceans of the Earth." It's not enough to point to possible amino acid differences here or there (not specific to marine mammals, and not clearly tied to innovative complex structures like echolocation) and announce Q.E.D. by saying they might have evolved faster in whales than they did with camels.

A good scientific explanation needs to account for the whole animal, with all its parts. A designing intelligence knows how to integrate multiple complex systems for function. Unguided natural processes are incapable of that, as Granville Sewell illustrated here with tornadoes and iPhones recently.

Once the materialistic bias against intelligence is lifted from the causal toolkit, science is liberated from an unnecessary restriction against knowledge. Sternberg says in the film:

Darwinism provided an explanation for the appearance of design, and argued that there is no Designer -- or, if you will, the designer is natural selection. If that's out of the way -- if that just does not explain the evidence -- then the flip side of that is, well, things appear designed because they are designed.
Whales illustrate a "global architecture that only a mind can bring about," Paul Nelson adds.

The data from genetics and molecular biology and a host of other fields have proven impossible to reconcile with undirected material causes. And, if science is an open-ended search for the truth, regardless of where the evidence leads, then what difference should it make if it leads to an intelligent cause?

Straining at irrelevant details to support a predetermined narrative because of some arbitrary rule that disallows non-material causes blinds science to the obvious. It strains at gnats while swallowing camels.

Blind to design.

UCLA Team Turbo-Charges Berra's Blunder
Evolution News & Views

Berra's Blunder has long been a prime example of how some evolutionists don't understand their own theory. It started back in 1990 when Tim Berra illustrated Darwinian evolution by showing how Corvettes showed "descent with modification" between 1953 and 1955. Phillip Johnson was quick to point out that "every one of those Corvettes was designed by engineers."

Far from illustrating naturalistic evolution, he argued, they illustrate "how intelligent designers will typically achieve their purposes by adding variations to a basic design plan." Casey Luskin caught Francis Collins and Karl Giberson committing this blunder in 2011. In 2014, Adrian Bejan confused airplane design with Darwinian evolution. And last year, the BBC News committed the blunder by applying evolution to robotics.

Now Berra's Blunder is back with a vengeance. If Berra restricted his evolution to Corvettes, Stuart Wolpert (writing for the UCLA Newsroom) applies it to every horseless carriage from the Model T to the DeLorean DMC-12, with color photos for emphasis. And Wolpert is not alone; he is backed up by Erik Gjesfjeld, a postdoctoral scholar in UCLA's Institute for Society and Genetics, smiling for the camera, and by Michael Alfaro, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at UCLA:

"Cars are exceptionally diverse but also have a detailed history of changes, making them a model system for investigating the evolution of technology," Gjesfjeld said.
The team drew data from 3,575 car models made by 172 different manufacturers, noting the first and last year each was manufactured.

"This is similar to when a paleontologist first dates a particular fossil and last sees a particular fossil," Gjesfjeld said. [Emphasis added.]

Writers could be forgiven for using evolution as a figure of speech, knowing that cars are intelligently designed. But these writers see no difference between cars and fossils.

Alfaro said applying an evolutionary biology approach worked so well because the automotive industry's technological records are very similar to the paleontological fossil record.
"In many instances, it is superior," he said. "We find in only a handful of cases a fossil record this complete."

Moreover, Gjesfjeld and Alfaro, with Wolpert in the newsroom, speak of competition, diversification, and survival as if cars are out in the jungle fending for themselves (fenders notwithstanding).

Based on the study, the researchers can project how the electric car marketplace will evolve over the next several years. Alfaro said the field now is in an early phase of rapid diversification, and although it's likely that many more electric and hybrid models will be introduced over the next 15 to 20 years, many won't survive for very long due to increasing competition. This, he said, will eventually lead to consolidation, with a small number of dominant models that will thrive.
Ultimately, Gjesfjeld said, the technique could help us make sense of the bewildering array of technologies humans have created. "Despite the use of numerous technologies in our everyday life, we lack a basic understanding of how all this technological diversity came to be," he said.

That he lacks a basic understanding of how cars came to be is true indeed, if he really thinks they emerged by a Darwinian process.

Too harsh? The news item does speak of design and management. The evolutionists don't say that random mutations in cars are selected. But the Darwinian comparison is clear from the opening paragraph:

A UCLA-led team of researchers has taken a unique approach to explain the way in which technologies evolve in modern society. Borrowing a technique that biologists might use to study the evolution of plants or animals, the scientists plotted the "births" and "deaths" of every American-made car and truck model from 1896 to 2014.
Surely the three men know cars are designed by intelligent engineers. What the article indicates, though, is a complete misunderstanding of Darwinian evolution. In its core essence, Darwinian evolution is unguided, purposeless, and mindless. That cannot be said of business managers who decide, using their minds, how best to beat the competition by designing their next models.

Maybe they committed artistic license. Let's see if the blunder vanishes in the peer-reviewed paper in the open-access journal Palgrave Communications, titled "Competition and extinction explain the evolution of diversity in American automobiles." The title, you notice right away, isn't helpful.

Despite considerable focus on the evolution of technology by social scientists and philosophers, there have been few attempts to systematically quantify technological diversity, and therefore the dynamics of technological change remain poorly understood. Here we show a novel Bayesian model for examining technological diversification adopted from palaeontological analysis of occurrence data. We use this framework to estimate the tempo of diversification in American car and truck models produced between 1896 and 2014, and to test the relative importance of competition and extrinsic factors in shaping changes in macro-evolutionary rates.
And thus it goes. But like a ray of light in the darkness, there is one point in the paper where Gjesfeld, Alfaro, and their three co-authors do catch the difference between designed automobiles and biological evolution.

Evolution has been and continues to be a valuable source of methods and theories for the study of human culture. Previous research has demonstrated that human culture undeniably evolves, but to what degree cultural change mirrors biological change remains an unsettled question (Tëmkin and Eldredge, 2007). The evolution of technology is a topic in which the evolutionary analogy has been particularly contentious, with debate often centred on the unit of evolutionary analysis, the replication of technological designs and the applicability of branching models to understanding the evolution to intentionally designed objects. This article presents an alternative perspective to the study of technological evolution that highlights the concept of diversity and a suite of macro-evolutionary methods useful in quantifying the dynamics of technological diversification.
Score one for recognizing "intentionally designed objects." But then, they leap right back into the blunder by comparing automobiles to organisms that they assumed evolved without intention or design. If Darwinian evolution fails to explain animal disparity and diversity in the fossil record, why on earth would they believe it can explain automobiles, which they surely recognize as intentionally designed objects?

In this research, technological diversity is conceptualized as the number of different technological lineages represented in a system. This definition of diversity is different from disciplines that acknowledge diversity as having the additional dimensions of balance and disparity (Stirling, 2007), but is analogous to the concept of species richness in biology, where a large number of methods are available for characterizing this component of diversity through time.
In no subsequent passage do they refer to intelligence, intention, or guidance. It's all diversification by means of non-intelligent factors. The blunder is especially clear in their Conclusion:

Just as the fossil record provides evidence for biological change through time, the archaeological and historical record has an important role to play in our understanding of technological and cultural evolution by providing empirical evidence for change through time. Our analyses of American car models reveals the shifting roles that origination and extinction have played in shaping diversity in one of the most important and ubiquitous technologies of the twentieth century. Furthermore, we demonstrate how the analysis of cultural change in a birth-death framework provides a means for testing alternative hypotheses about the extrinsic and intrinsic controls on technological diversification. Our approach is flexible and easily adapted to other cultural systems where a record of first and last appearances of artifacts is available. Overall, the quantitative study of diversification within a macro-evolutionary framework offers enormous potential to enrich our understanding of cultural and technological change.
Sorry, one cannot even begin to understand "cultural evolution" by basing one's explanation on a blunder. Darwinian evolution is not a theory of "change through time." It is a materialistic creation story. It gives, or seeks to give, design without a designer. In Darwin's theory, innovations occur randomly, and are selected by a mindless environment. Would it make any sense to speak of the evolution of a guided missile by unguided processes?


Such language is bound to confuse, not enlighten. Anything not reducible to unguided natural processes is not evolution; it is intelligent design. Before any progress can be made in the debate on origins, there must be clarity.

The argument for design condensed.

In The Design of Life, Dembski and Wells Offer a Powerful Survey of the Case for Intelligent Design
Evolution News & Views

To really appreciate the evidence for intelligent design, do you ever get the feeling you need several shelves of weighty tomes by design theorists, a great deal of time for reading and understanding them, and a PhD in biology, math, or philosophy wouldn't hurt either?


At the same time, the question of whether life's history bears the imprint of purposeful guidance is an ultimate question. Perhaps the ultimate question for every person to consider.Shouldn't weighing the inference to design be readily comprehensible to any thoughtful adult? Surely the folks at Discovery Institute owe it to the public to offer a slim and attractive, one-volume survey of the evidence for ID, authored by top ID scholars but also an easily accessible read, something you could, perhaps, give as a gift to a curious friend who you know perfectly well isn't going to wade through a whole library of ID works? But who might read one book...

Or put it a different way: How about a book that gives a view of the forest of ID evidences from high above, rather than one tree, however magnificent? Come on, Discovery Institute, give it to us!

Well, guess what? We did, and it's here. It is The Design of Life: Discovering Signs of Intelligence in Biological Systems, by mathematician and philosopher William A. Dembski and molecular and cell biologist Jonathan Wells. Both are Senior Fellows of the Center for Science & Culture, prolific authors and star scholars, decorated with advanced degrees from the University of Chicago, Yale, and UC Berkeley.

No less important than their academic distinctions, they also have a gift for explaining difficult scientific ideas in clear, inviting prose. That's what they do in The Design of Life, published originally by the Foundation for Thought and Ethics, now available to celebrate the launch of a new imprint of Discovery Institute Press, Foundation for Thought and Ethics (FTE) Books.

Through July 8, we will be selling the book for only $10 -- that's more than a 70 percent discount! And it includes both the full-color hardcover and an accompanying CD with additional materials.  Order now, because this special discount won't last long!

The Design of Life hits all the most fascinating challenges to orthodox evolutionary theory posed by top ID advocates, and the most substantial reasons for substituting Design for Darwinism. It's all here! Dembski and Wells survey the case for ID with sections on "Human Origins," "Genetics and Macroevolution," "The Fossil Record," "Similar Features," "Irreducible Complexity," "Specified Complexity," "The Origin of Life," and concluding with an Epilogue, "The 'Inherit the Wind' Stereotype."

All that in fewer than three hundred pages, with handsome color photos and illustrations, in a study and slim hardcover edition. In addition, each section concludes with thought-provoking Discussion Questions, which make The Design of Life the perfect guide and companion for your study group.

Another key figure in ID's scientific community, biochemist Michael Behe, says, "When future intellectual historians list the books that toppled Darwin's theory, The Design of Life will be at the top."

If overturning a stale, overbearing relic of 19th century materialism represents a challenge not only of persuading scientists but in explaining the relevant science to the lay public, then that would have to be true. This is the broad overview of ID that has been missing from your reading list.

Design in biology is real, not an illusion. Not convinced? Still uncertain that you've understood the inference to intelligent design? The Design of Life seals the deal.  If you haven't read this wonderful book, now is your chance!

File under 'Well said' XXX

“The object of life is not to be on the side of the majority, but to escape finding oneself in the ranks of the insane.” 
― Marcus Aurelius, Meditations

A clash of titans XXII

Small brain,big smarts

Source:
University of Bonn

The elephantnose fish explores objects in its surroundings by using its eyes or its electrical sense -- sometimes both together. Zoologists at the University of Bonn and a colleague from Oxford have now found out how complex the processing of these sensory impressions is. With its tiny brain, the fish achieves performance comparable to that of humans or mammals. The advance results have been published online in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The elephantnose fish (Gnathonemus petersii) is widespread in the flowing waters of West Africa and hunts insect larva at dawn and dusk. It is helped by an electrical organ in its tail, which emits electrical impulses. The skin contains numerous sensor organs that perceive objects in the water by means of the changed electrical field. "This is a case of active electrolocation, in principle the same as the active echolocation of bats, which use ultrasound to perceive a three-dimensional image of their environment," says Professor Dr. Gerhard von der Emde at the Institute of Zoology at the University of Bonn. Furthermore, the elephantnose fish can also orient using its eyes.

Professor von der Emde, along with his doctoral candidate Sarah Schumacher and Dr. Theresa Burt de Perera of Oxford University, have now investigated how the unusual fish processes the information from the various sensory channels. Ms. Schumacher summarizes the results: "The animals normally use both senses. If necessary, for example because one of the two senses provides no information or the information of the two senses differs greatly, however, the fish can switch back and forth between their visual and electrical senses." The scientists were surprised by the manner in which the fish use these two senses to get the best perception of their environment: When the animals became familiar with an object in the aquarium, for example with the visual sense, they were also able to recognize it again using the electrical sense, although they had never perceived it electrically before.

Fish give precedence to the most reliable sensory information

In addition, the fish demonstrated a previously unexpected ability: Their brain gave more weight to the information it thought was more reliable. When the two senses delivered different information in the close range of up to two centimeters, the fish trusted only the electrical information and were then "blind" to the visual stimuli. In contrast, for more distant objects, the animals relied above all on their eyes. They perceived the environment best by using their visual and electrical senses in combination. "A transfer between the different senses was previously known only for certain highly developed mammals, such as monkeys, dolphins, rats, and humans," says Professor von der Emde. An example: In a dark, unfamiliar apartment, people feel their way forward to avoid stumbling. When the light goes on, the obstacles felt are recognized by the eye without any problem. Mammals process such information with their cerebral cortex. The elephantnose fish, however, has just a relatively small brain and no cerebral cortex at all -- but nevertheless switches back and forth between the senses.

Clever experimental setup

The scientists came up with a very clever test setup: The elephantnose fish was in an aquarium. Separated from it were two different chambers, between which the animal could choose. Behind openings to the chambers there were differently shaped objects: a sphere or a cuboid. The fish learned to steer toward one of these objects by being rewarded with insect larvae. Subsequently, it searched for this object again, to obtain the reward again.

When does the fish use a particular sense? In order to answer this question, the researchers repeated the experiments in absolute darkness. Now the fish could rely only on its electrical sense. As shown by images taken with an infrared camera, it was able to recognize the object only at short distances. With the light on the fish was most successful, because it was able to use its eyes and the electrical sense for the different distances. In order to find out when the fish used its eyes alone, the researchers made the objects invisible to the electrical sense. Now, the sphere and cuboid to be discriminated had the same electrical characteristics as the water.

Many repetitions of the individual experiments were necessary in order to apply statistical analyses to reach conclusions about the sensory processing of the elephantnose fish. The scientists worked with a total of ten animals, working more or less in shifts. "The behavior of the different individuals was nearly identical," says Professor von der Emde. For that reason the scientists are certain that this enormous sensory performance is achieved not only by a particulary talented specimen but by all elephantnose fish.

Story Source:

The above post is reprinted from materials provided by University of Bonn. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

Darwinism Vs. the real world XXXVI

In the Beginning: Male and Female
Howard Glicksman

Editor's note: Physicians have a special place among the thinkers who have elaborated the argument for intelligent design. Perhaps that's because, more than evolutionary biologists, they are familiar with the challenges of maintaining a functioning complex system, the human body. With that in mind, Evolution News is delighted to offer this series, "The Designed Body." For the complete series, see here. Dr. Glicksman practices palliative medicine for a hospice organization.

Everyone knows that a human being is either male or female. And most people know that the nucleus in each human cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes which house the genetic material needed to produce the essential molecules for life. There are even some who know that, in addition to providing 22 somatic chromosomes, the female egg always provides an X chromosome and the male sperm provides either an X or Y chromosome to make a female (XX) or a male (XY) human person.

But what most people do not know or appreciate is how the body decides whether to make male or female parts. Although a given person's survival does not depend on having the right parts for reproduction, we all know that without adequate sexual function human life would be impossible. Moreover, as difficult as it may be for evolutionary biologists to explain the development of the different organ systems and the body's ability to control them to survive within the laws of nature, because of how human reproduction takes place, they must also explain the simultaneous development of both males and females since neither is of any use for survival without the other. Let's look at the structures each sex must have to reproduce and how the body decides which ones to develop.

The word sex comes from the Latin secare which means to separate or divide. Each of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes are separated from each other and placed within gametes called male sperm and female eggs. Human reproduction requires that the 23 chromosomes in the sperm be joined to the 23 chromosomes in the egg to form a new human being. The natural way this takes place is through sexual intercourse. This involves the male depositing sperm from his penis into the female's vagina so they can travel through the cervix into the body of her uterus and one of them can join up with an egg.

To accomplish this task the male is equipped with testes, which produce sperm, and a genital duct system (epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle) and external genitalia (penis, scrotum, and prostate) to help move the sperm from the testes out of his body. The female is equipped with external genitalia (labia, clitoris, and lower vagina) and a genital duct system (upper vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes) to help guide the sperm toward an egg that has been released from one of her ovaries. The sperm and egg usually meet in one of the fallopian tubes of the uterus where the newly formed one-celled zygote forms a new human life. The zygote soon starts to divide, becoming an embryo which migrates into the body of the uterus and implants in its endometrial lining, allowing it to grow and develop into a newborn baby that exits about nine months later.

For the first several weeks of life the human embryo is asexual because the gonads have not yet declared themselves to be either testes or ovaries. Human embryology teaches that the undifferentiated gonads are destined to become ovaries by default unless acted upon by a molecule called the Testis Determining Factor (TDF). The genetic information needed to produce TDF is located on the Sex Determining Region of the Y chromosome (SRY). So this explains why a male must have a Y chromosome...or does it? Nature can sometimes play tricks and a translocation of the genes that code for the TDF may wind up on the X chromosome instead. This is how it is possible to have an XX male who, due to the TDF being on his X chromosome, forms testes instead of ovaries but who nevertheless is usually sterile and unable to reproduce. By telling the primordial gonads to become testes, the TDF on the SRY is therefore the master switch that makes the body go down the male track rather than the female one. But becoming a male with all the right parts for reproduction involves much more.

The testes produce testosterone, a steroid hormone derived from cholesterol, by using different enzymes encoded on several different somatic chromosomes. Each human embryo begins life with two different undeveloped genital duct systems, the Wolffian ducts and the Mullerian ducts. If the gonads do not become testes, the Wolffian ducts degenerate and disappear and the Mullerian ducts develop into the female genital duct system. However, if the gonads become testes, the testosterone they produce attaches to androgen receptors (encoded on the X chromosome) and directs the Wolffian ducts to develop into the male genital duct system.

However, if the androgen receptor is absent or not working at all this causes a condition called Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS). In CAIS the testes produce testosterone but, without properly working androgen receptors to respond to it, the Wolffian ducts degenerate anyway leaving no genital duct system. This takes place in about one in 20,000 male births and these people are known as XY females. They will have testes that may migrate into the groin and labia, which if removed, will prove their true original nature. But they will often go undetected, appearing as normal females until they fail to menstruate at the appropriate age when all the other signs of puberty have taken place. It is then that they will be found to not have male or female internal organs, and a vagina that is usually smaller than normal and leads into a blind pouch going nowhere. How can this be? Read on!

On the way to developing into a normal male, in addition to testosterone, the testes also produce Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) which is encoded on the 19th chromosome. AMH attaches to specific AMH receptors (encoded on the 12th chromosome) and instructs the Mullerian duct cells to degenerate and disappear. This is very important for male fertility because if both the Wolffian and Mullerian ducts develop, they physically interfere with each other. This usually results in sterility. It also explains why the XY female with CAIS looks like a normal female but has neither a male nor female genital duct system. Since her Wolffian ducts didn't have working androgen receptors, they degenerated. But her testes also produced AMH which attached to the AMH receptors on her Mullerian ducts and made them degenerate too!

Here again we see that the embryo is destined to become female unless acted upon by specific molecules, in this case, testosterone and AMH, with the help of the androgen and AMH receptors. But there is still more to explain.

The external genitalia develop from the urogenital sinus, swellings, folds, and tubercle. If the gonads do not become testes and produce testosterone, these automatically develop into the female external genitalia. However, for this tissue to become normal male external genitalia requires much more stimulation of the androgen receptor than testosterone can provide. The cells in these tissues use an enzyme, called 5-alpha reductase (encoded on the second chromosome), to convert testosterone into dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which is a stronger stimulator of the androgen receptor. When DHT attaches to the androgen receptors in these embryonic tissues, it makes them develop into the penis, the scrotum, and the prostate gland. An XY person with a rare genetic disorder called 5-alpha reductase deficiency will have normally functioning testes and a normal male genital duct system, but their external genitalia will often be deformed and ambiguous making them incapable of participating in sexual intercourse and rendering them infertile. Again we see that the human embryo is destined to develop female parts by default or defective male parts unless acted upon by specific molecules, in this case the need for 5-alpha reductase to convert testosterone into DHT to adequately stimulate the androgen receptor.

To reiterate, the human embryo is destined to become female by default if not acted upon by several different chemicals. The TDF, usually on the Y chromosome, is what starts it down the male track by making the primordial gonads become testes; but much more is still needed. The testes use several enzymes encoded on different chromosomes to convert cholesterol into testosterone, which must attach to androgen receptors on the Wolffian ducts to form the male genital duct system. Without testosterone or properly working androgen receptors, the Wolffian ducts degenerate. In addition, to have normal male external genitalia requires a specific enzyme to convert testosterone into dihydrotestosterone so it can adequately stimulate the androgen receptors on the urogenital sinus, swellings, folds, and tubercle. If this enzyme is absent or not working right, the result is deformed and ambiguous external genitalia that cannot perform sexual intercourse, while if the androgen receptor is missing the result is female external genitalia. Finally, the testes also produce AMH which binds to AMH receptors on the Müllerian ducts to make them degenerate. If either of these are absent or not functioning properly, it results in the male having both a male and female genital duct system, which renders him infertile.

To paraphrase Stephen Meyer in The Information Enigma,different cell types require different proteins, different proteins require different genetically encoded instructions, and different instructions requires information that all human experience teaches comes from a mind and not material processes. Notwithstanding what it takes to produce properly working female parts, the information needed to make the male parts for reproduction requires the TDF, the enzymes to convert cholesterol into testosterone and testosterone into dihydrotestosterone, the androgen receptor, AMH and the AMH receptor.


The absence of any one of these results in either female parts or sterile male parts -- and the survival of the human race hangs in the balance. Yet at birth and for many years afterward, human beings are incapable of participating in reproduction. What happens to change that? That's what we'll look at next time.

Russian authorities continue to frame mischief by law.

RUSSIA: Jehovah's Witnesses face possible liquidation
By Victoria Arnold, Forum 18

If prosecutors proceed with their threat to liquidate the Jehovah's Witness headquarters near St Petersburg, thousands of local congregations across Russia could also face prohibition of their activities and individuals could be vulnerable to criminal charges for expressing their beliefs, Forum 18 notes.

The Jehovah's Witnesses' principal body in Russia is under threat of dissolution as an "extremist" organisation after the deadline in an official warning from the General Prosecutor's Office expired on 10 May, Forum 18 notes. If prosecutors decide to pursue liquidation, thousands of local Jehovah's Witness congregations across Russia could also face prohibition of their activities and individuals could be vulnerable to criminal charges for expressing their beliefs.

If dissolution of the Administrative Centre is pursued, this would be the first instance of a registered, centralised religious organisation with active subdivisions being liquidated for "extremism", Forum 18 notes.

Lawyers have until 10 June to challenge the warning in court, the Administrative Centre told Forum 18 from St Petersburg. Lawyers for the Administrative Centre are planning to lodge a challenge at Tver District Court in Moscow, and told Forum 18 they still hope that the matter will be resolved in their favour.

Forum 18's questions to the General Prosecutor's Office – including whether liquidation of the Administrative Centre would amount to a prohibition on all Jehovah's Witness activity across Russia – had not been answered by the end of the working day in Moscow on 24 May (see below).

"Slanderous accusations"

Jehovah's Witnesses have strongly denied the accusations of extremism. "The slanderous accusations of ‘extremism' against us are simply being used to mask the true religious intolerance of those who disagree with our beliefs," Administrative Centre representative Vasiliy Kalin said on the jw.org website on 27 April. "We are not extremists."

"For Jehovah's Witnesses to be lumped together with extremist groups and for their literature to be listed with works of violent terrorists is an affront to decency and justice," New York-based General Counsel Philip Brumley added in the same article.

The use of "extremism" laws has been the biggest single threat to freedom of religion or belief in Russia for some years. Particular victims of this have been Muslims (including those who read the works of the late Turkish theologian Said Nursi) and Jehovah's Witnesses (see Forum 18's Russia "extremism" survey http://www.forum18.org/Archive.php?article_id=1724).

The Administrative Centre

The Administrative Centre of Jehovah's Witnesses of Russia, based on the outskirts of St Petersburg, has been registered as a "centralised religious organisation" since 1999. Jehovah's Witnesses were first officially registered under Soviet law in 1991, but have been present in Russia since the late 19th century.

"Engaging in extremist activity is not permitted"

On 10 March 2016, the Administrative Centre of Jehovah's Witnesses received the formal warning "that engaging in extremist activity is not permitted", dated 2 March, from Viktor Grin, Deputy General Prosecutor of the Russian Federation. The warning is explicitly predicated on the alleged "extremist" activities of the local communities (and their members) which the Centre oversees and supports.

The warning, seen by Forum 18, instructs the Centre to take "specific organisational and practical measures" within a period of two months in order to prevent further offences under the Extremism Law. It cautions that the Centre will be subject to dissolution if it does not eliminate existing violations or if new evidence of extremism is detected over the following twelve months.

The document does not elaborate on what such "organisational and practical measures" may be or how they will be monitored. Any subsequent extremism-related conviction of an individual or local community may provide grounds for prosecutors to pursue liquidation of the Administrative Centre.

Potential consequences

Forty-seven entities currently appear on the Justice Ministry's list of banned and/or liquidated terrorist and extremist organisations (which is dominated by extreme nationalist groups and includes some Ukrainian political organisations).

Seven of these are former registered religious organisations, which operated only on a local level (such as the Borovsk Muslim community in Tyumen and the Taganrog, Samara and Abinsk Jehovah's Witness congregations).

A further eleven are religious associations which were never officially registered, such as the Muslim missionary movement Tabligh Jamaat and "Nurdzhular", which Muslims in Russia deny even exists – nevertheless, Muslims who read the works of Said Nursi are regularly prosecuted for "continuing its activities" (see F18News 11 April 2016 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2166).

In an article of 27 April on their international website, Jehovah's Witnesses point out that, if liquidated, the Administrative Centre will be closed, it will be added to the federal list of extremist organisations and its property will be turned over to the State.

"Because of their affiliation with the Centre, all religious associations of Jehovah's Witnesses - 406 local religious organizations (legal entities) and over 2,500 congregations – may also face liquidation," Jehovah's Witnesses complain. "As a result, Witnesses throughout Russia could lose their Kingdom Halls (houses of worship)." They also warn that "Jehovah's Witnesses in Russia could find themselves in a scenario in which they are free to believe as they wish but not free to practice their religion with others".

This would, the Office of the General Counsel fears, amount to a ban on all Jehovah's Witness activity in Russia. It told Forum 18 on 23 May that it believes that dissolution of the Administrative Centre would be grounds for liquidation of all registered Jehovah's Witness organisations in the country, although separate legal proceedings would have to be opened against each of them.

Article 9 of the Extremism Law states that "In the event of the rendering by a court of law of a decision on the grounds provided for by the given federal law on the liquidation of a public or a religious association, their regional and other structural subdivisions shall be also liquidated."

When a registered religious organisation is liquidated, it loses its status as a legal entity and concomitant rights such as the ability to own or rent property, employ staff and hold a bank account. Although an unregistered community should legally be able to continue to operate as a religious group, which does not require registration, and meet privately for worship and study, this carries the risk of criminal charges if their organisation was liquidated on grounds of extremism.

Sixteen Jehovah's Witnesses in Taganrog were convicted on 30 November 2015 of "continuing the activities of a banned extremist organisation" (see F18News 3 December 2015 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2128). Rostov Regional Court rejected their appeals on 17 March 2016 and the convictions have now come into force.

"The worst thing is that, after the elimination of a local religious organisation, believers face prosecution simply for reading the Bible," Jehovah's Witness spokesperson Kalin complained in a press release of 12 April.

Communities already under threat

The General Prosecutor's Office warning notes that several Jehovah's Witness communities have already been liquidated, have had liquidation suits opened against them, or have been warned of the possibility of liquidation, all for alleged "extremist" activity. The only specific form of such activity it mentions is the distribution of prohibited religious literature.

These moves – and the increase in prosecutions of Jehovah's Witnesses under Administrative Code Article 20.29 (distribution of extremist materials – see F18News 25 April 2016 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2171) and Article 20.2 ("unapproved" public events – see F18News 18 May 2016 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2179) mark a recent intensification of law enforcement efforts to curtail Jehovah's Witness activity, Forum 18 notes (see F18News 22 March 2016 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2161).

Before 2014, only one Jehovah's Witness congregation (in Taganrog, Rostov Region, in 2009) had been dissolved on charges of "extremist" activity. In 2014, the Samara community was dissolved, followed by the Abinsk community (Krasnodar Region) in March 2015, Tyumen in October 2015, and Belgorod, Stariy Oskol (also in Belgorod Region), and Elista (Republic of Kalmykiya) in February 2016.

Proceedings against the Cherkessk Jehovah's Witnesses were initiated in May 2015 and have been delayed multiple times by other civil cases involving the congregation (see F18News 28 August 2015 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2095).

Prosecutors have also submitted liquidation suits against Jehovah's Witness communities of Arkhangelsk and Oryol on 8 April and 12 May 2016 respectively. No hearing dates have yet been set in Oryol. The next hearing at Arkhangelsk Regional Court is due on 2 June. This is despite the fact that Arkhangelsk Jehovah's Witness leader Aleksandr Parygin applied to the Justice Ministry in October 2015 to have the community dissolved at its own request (see F18News 22 March 2016 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2161).

The Belgorod, Stariy Oskol, and Elista congregations are now awaiting the outcome of appeals to Russia's Supreme Court. Hearings in the first two cases are scheduled for 9 and 16 June respectively. The Elista community's appeal was registered on 22 April and the court has not yet given a hearing date.

The Supreme Court has already overturned the liquidation order with respect to the Tyumen Jehovah's Witnesses. It ruled on 15 April that the evidence presented and the small size of the community "do not give reason to believe that the activities of Jehovah's Witnesses in Tyumen has led to the need to choose the exceptional measure of liquidation of the organisation", based principally on the fact that "The liquidation of a social or religious association or other organisation is an exceptional measure which should be proportionate to the violations permitted by the legal entity and the consequences they provoke. Repeated violation of the law in itself cannot form the basis for a court decision on the liquidation of a legal entity."

According to the written verdict, seen by Forum 18, the Supreme Court also accepted that the Tyumen community had expelled a member found guilty under Administrative Code Article 20.29 and had repeatedly shown its members a list of publications included on the Federal List and acquainted them with the requirements of the Extremism Law.

At least nine more Jehovah's Witness communities have received warnings of "the inadmissibility of extremist activity" from prosecutor's offices since spring 2015, Forum 18 has found. Three of these – Tikhoretsk (Krasnodar), Chapayevsk (Samara), and Shakhty (Rostov) – are in regions which have already seen the liquidation of Jehovah's Witness congregations on grounds of "extremism" (in Abinsk, Samara, and Taganrog respectively).

The other six are in Kaluga, Birobidzhan in the Jewish Autonomous Region, Vilyuchinsk on the Far Eastern Kamchatka peninsula, Teykovo in Ivanovo Region, Stavropol, and Prokhladny in the Republic of Kabardino-Balkariya. Four communities (Tikhoretsk, Teykovo, Chapayevsk, Prokhladny) are so far known to have gone to court to have the warnings recognised as unlawful, all unsuccessfully.

If communities or their members are convicted again (usually within 12 months) under Administrative Code Article 20.29 ("Production or mass distribution of extremist materials"), they risk liquidation proceedings.

The warning sent to the Administrative Centre claims that warnings about extremist activity have also been issued to Jehovah's Witness communities in the Kemerovo and Novosibirsk Regions and the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous District in Tyumen Region.

Jehovah's Witness literature banned

Over 80 Jehovah's Witness texts, as well as the international jw.org website (in addition to numerous Muslim, several Falun Gong and one Catholic book), have been declared "extremist" and placed on the Justice Ministry's Federal List of Extremist Materials.

Possession of an item on the Federal List carries the risk of a fine or imprisonment for up to 15 days, and confiscation of the banned literature. Jehovah's Witnesses described the inclusion of their publications on the Federal List as a "miscarriage of justice" in a press statement of 12 April.

The Federal List now runs to over 3,500 items, often does not include full bibliographical details, and is irregularly updated. Checking whether a particular item is on the List can be difficult or even impossible (see F18News 27 July 2015 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2084).

Prosecutions under Administrative Code Article 20.29 ("Production or mass distribution of extremist materials") have increased (see F18News 25 April 2016 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2171). The import into Russia of Jehovah's Witness literature (not deemed "extremist") is routinely blocked (see F18News 14 December 2015 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2133). A court in Vyborg is currently considering a request by prosecutors to outlaw the Jehovah's Witness edition of the Bible as an "extremist" text (see F18News 5 May 2016 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2174).

All community dissolutions have followed a similar path, Forum 18 notes. They have involved the discovery of "extremist" literature, charges under Article 20.29, prosecutors' warnings, and allegations of repeat offences, leading to prosecutors seeking liquidation through the courts.

On 15 February 2016, Jehovah's Witnesses stated on their website jw.org that Russia's law enforcement agencies "have increasingly resorted to fabricating evidence to justify charges of extremism against Jehovah's Witnesses", claiming that the "extremist" materials found in their homes and Kingdom Halls are in fact planted by the police (see F18News 2 March 2016 http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2154).

General Prosecutor's Office response

On 28 March, the General Prosecutor's Office rejected the Jehovah's Witnesses' request for a meeting to discuss the warning. Since then, the Administrative Centre has received no further communication from prosecutors, spokesperson Ivan Belenko told Forum 18. He added that they complained directly to the General Prosecutor Yury Chaika on 29 April, but have had no reply. Jehovah's Witnesses have also approached the Presidential Administration.

Forum 18 sent a fax to the General Prosecutor's Office in the afternoon of the Moscow working day of 19 May, asking the following questions: 

1. What "concrete organisational and practical measures" should the Administrative Centre take to prevent further violations?

2. Could any violation by a local community or member of a community be grounds for the liquidation of the Administrative Centre in the twelve-month period after the warning was issued?

3. If the Administrative Centre is liquidated, will all local religious organisations of Jehovah's Witnesses also be automatically dissolved, or would separate court proceedings be necessary?

4. Would the liquidation of the Administrative Centre amount to a prohibition on all Jehovah's Witness activity on the territory of the Russian Federation?


Forum 18 had received no reply as of the end of the Moscow working day of 24 May. (END)

Psalm94)1O Jehovah, thou God to whom vengeance belongeth, Thou God to whom vengeance belongeth, shine forth.

2Lift up thyself, thou judge of the earth: Render to the proud their desert.

3Jehovah, how long shall the wicked, How long shall the wicked triumph?

4They prate, they speak arrogantly: All the workers of iniquity boast themselves.

5They break in pieces thy people, O Jehovah, And afflict thy heritage.

6They slay the widow and the sojourner, And murder the fatherless.

7And they say, Jehovah will not see, Neither will the God of Jacob consider.

8Consider, ye brutish among the people; And ye fools, when will ye be wise?

9He that planted the ear, shall he not hear? He that formed the eye, shall he not see?

10He that chastiseth the nations, shall not he correct, Even he that teacheth man knowledge?

11Jehovah knoweth the thoughts of man, That they are vanity.

12Blessed is the man whom thou chastenest, O Jehovah, And teachest out of thy law;

13That thou mayest give him rest from the days of adversity, Until the pit be digged for the wicked.

14For Jehovah will not cast off his people, Neither will he forsake his inheritance.

15For judgment shall return unto righteousness; And all the upright in heart shall follow it.

16Who will rise up for me against the evil-doers? Who will stand up for me against the workers of iniquity?

17Unless Jehovah had been my help, My soul had soon dwelt in silence.

18When I said, My foot slippeth; Thy lovingkindness, O Jehovah, held me up.

19In the multitude of my thoughts within me Thy comforts delight my soul.

20Shall the throne of wickedness have fellowship with thee, Which frameth mischief by statute?

21They gather themselves together against the soul of the righteous, And condemn the innocent blood.

22But Jehovah hath been my high tower, And my God the rock of my refuge.


23And he hath brought upon them their own iniquity, And will cut them off in their own wickedness; Jehovah our God will cut them off.

The end of the world:A commentary by the Watchtower Society.

When Will the World End?

The Bible’s answer

To know when the end of the world will happen, it is necessary to understand how the Bible uses the term “world.” The Greek word koʹsmos, usually translated “world,” most often refers to the world of humankind, especially the part that is out of harmony with God and his will. (John 15:18, 19; 2 Peter 2:5) At times, koʹsmos refers to the framework of human society.—1 Corinthians 7:31; 1 John 2:15, 16. *

What is “the end of the world”?

The phrase “the end of the world,” which appears in many Bible translations, can also be rendered as “the conclusion of the system of things,” or “the close of the age.” (Matthew 24:3; English Standard Version) It refers, not to the destruction of the earth or of all humanity, but to the end of the framework of human society.—1 John 2:17.

The Bible teaches that “evil men will be done away with” so that good people can enjoy life on earth. (Psalm 37:9-11) This destruction will happen at the “great tribulation,” which culminates in the war of Armageddon.—Matthew 24:21, 22; Revelation 16:14, 16.

When will the world end?

Jesus said: “Concerning that day and hour nobody knows, neither the angels of the heavens nor the Son, but only the Father.” (Matthew 24:36, 42) He added that the timing of the end would be unexpected, “at an hour that you do not think to be it.”—Matthew 24:44.

Even though we cannot know the exact day and hour, Jesus did provide a composite “sign,” or group of events, that would identify the time period leading up to the end of the world. (Matthew 24:3, 7-14) The Bible refers to this period as “the time of the end,” “the end times,” and “the last days.”—Daniel 12:4; God’s Word Bible; 2 Timothy 3:1-5.

Will there be anything left after the end of the world?

Yes. The earth will still be here, for the Bible says that “it will not be moved from its place forever and ever.” (Psalm 104:5) And the earth will be filled with people, just as the Bible promises: “The righteous will possess the earth, and they will live forever on it.” (Psalm 37:29) God will bring about the conditions that he originally purposed:

Paradise.—Isaiah 35:1; Luke 23:43.
Security and prosperity.—Micah 4:4.
Meaningful and satisfying work for all.—Isaiah 65:21-23.

Freedom from disease and aging.—Job 33:25; Isaiah 33:24.

On second thoughts about dark matter

Cosmologists should be more skeptical of dark matter
Stuart Clark is an astronomy journalist and the author of several books about space, both non-fiction and fiction, including The Unknown Universe (2008). He writes the blog Across the Universe for the Guardian. 




To get computer models to look similar to the Universe around us, cosmologists have assumed that around 96 per cent of matter and energy are in forms that we cannot directly detect. You might think that this would make cosmologists wary of relying on such hypothetical substances. Yet for the majority working today, dark matter and dark energy are every bit as real as the stars and galaxies that we can see.

Such corporate belief might work for business, but it has no place in science. Back in 1620, Francis Bacon published his Novum Organum (The New Method). In his description of how to investigate nature, he cautioned would-be scientists about four ‘idols of the mind’. Namely:

Idola tribus (idols of the tribe) – which occur when people try to feed new facts into their preconceived ideas. ‘The human understanding is like a false mirror,’ Bacon wrote, ‘which, receiving rays irregularly, distorts and discolours the nature of things by mingling its own nature with it.’

Idola specus (idols of the cave): ‘Everyone… has a cave or den of his own, which refracts and discolours the light of nature,’ writes Bacon. These individual likes and dislikes cloud judgment.

Idola fori (idols of the marketplace): in the exchange of ideas, Bacon writes, ‘the ill and unfit choice of words wonderfully obstructs the understanding’.

Idola theatri (idols of the theatre): the final idol comes about by blindly following academic dogma and not asking enough real questions about the world. Why theatre? ‘In my judgment,’ writes Bacon, ‘all the received systems are but so many stage plays, representing worlds of their own creation after an unreal and scenic fashion.’

Cosmology could well be falling foul of these idols. In the case of dark matter, the unquestioning belief is puzzling because the direct searches for these particles are coming up effectively empty‑handed. Yet observations are routinely interpreted as being the result of dark matter. No other avenues of approach are taken by the vast majority of researchers.

In reality, there are other possible solutions that at least warrant examination and comparison. In certain circumstances they fit the observations better than dark matter can. They usually involve a different approach, which is to alter how the force of gravity works or to relax an assumption about the way we think the Universe works, rather than add new constituents to the Universe.

An alternative to dark matter was offered in 1981, by the physicist Mordehai Milgrom of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. He postulated that gravity pulls a little more strongly than Newton’s laws predict at extremely weak levels.

A different approach to dark energy, which is thought to power an acceleration of the Universe, is to dismiss the assumption that matter is distributed evenly throughout space. Then the Universe will naturally change the rate at which it expands.

Yet these ideas are generally sidelined in favour of the status quo. Why?

Cosmology has become too conservative, too unwilling to step outside of the mainstream in the search for answers. While some might see this piece as an attack, it is simply the adoption of a position that I believe is truly scientific. One in which skepticism rules, and prevailing ideas are questioned.

The true gold standard for science is constant self-questioning, constant re‑evaluation, and constant open-mindedness in the search for better explanations. Theories are never ‘true’, even if they fit all known facts. They are merely hypotheses that have been shown to be useful. And they could fall at any moment if new observations come to light that do not fit.


The sobering fact is that either 96 per cent of the Universe is unknown to us or we are completely wrong about the way we think the Universe works. Either way, cosmology is far from finished: we have a lot to work out.