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Tuesday, 10 June 2014

Acts11-15NWT(2013 Edition)

11 Now the apostles and the brothers who were in Ju·de′a heard that people of the nations had also accepted the word of God. 2 So when Peter came up to Jerusalem, the supporters of circumcision+ began to criticize* him, 3 saying: “You went into the house of men who were not circumcised and ate with them.” 4 At this Peter went on to explain the matter in detail to them, saying:
5 “I was in the city of Jop′pa praying, and while in a trance I saw a vision, something* descending like a great linen sheet being let down by its four corners from heaven, and it came right down to me.+ 6 Looking closely into it, I observed four-footed animals of the earth, wild beasts, reptiles,* and birds of heaven. 7 I also heard a voice say to me: ‘Get up, Peter, slaughter and eat!’ 8 But I said: ‘Certainly not, Lord, because a defiled or unclean thing has never entered my mouth.’ 9 The second time, the voice from heaven answered: ‘You stop calling defiled the things God has cleansed.’ 10 This happened a third time, and everything was pulled up again into heaven. 11 Also just at that moment, three men were standing at the house where we were staying, having been sent to me from Caes·a·re′a.+ 12 Then the spirit told me to go with them, not doubting at all. But these six brothers also went with me, and we entered into the house of the man.
13 “He reported to us how he saw the angel stand in his house and say: ‘Send men to Jop′pa and summon Simon who is called Peter,+ 14 and he will tell you things by which you and all your household may get saved.’ 15 But when I started to speak, the holy spirit fell on them just as it did also on us in the beginning.+ 16 At this I recalled the saying of the Lord, how he used to say: ‘John baptized with water,+ but you will be baptized with holy spirit.’+ 17 If, therefore, God gave the same free gift to them that he gave to us who have believed in the Lord Jesus Christ, who was I that I should be able to hinder God?”*+
18 When they heard these things, they stopped objecting,* and they glorified God, saying: “So, then, God has also granted to people of the nations repentance leading to life.”+
19 Now those who had been scattered+ by the tribulation that arose over Stephen went as far as Phoe·ni′cia, Cy′prus, and Antioch, but they spoke the word only to the Jews.+ 20 However, some of the men among them from Cy′prus and Cy·re′ne came to Antioch and began talking to the Greek-speaking people, declaring the good news of the Lord Jesus. 21 Furthermore, the hand of Jehovah* was with them, and a great number became believers and turned to the Lord.+
22 The report about them reached the ears of the congregation in Jerusalem, and they sent out Bar′na·bas+ as far as Antioch. 23 When he arrived and saw the undeserved kindness of God, he rejoiced and began to encourage them all to continue in the Lord with heartfelt resolve;+ 24 for he was a good man and full of holy spirit and faith. And a considerable crowd was added to the Lord.+ 25 So he went to Tarsus to make a thorough search for Saul.+ 26 After he found him, he brought him to Antioch. So for a whole year they assembled with them in the congregation and taught quite a crowd, and it was first in Antioch that the disciples were by divine providence called Christians.+
27 In those days prophets+ came down from Jerusalem to Antioch. 28 One of them named Ag′a·bus+ stood up and foretold through the spirit that a great famine was about to come on the entire inhabited earth,+ which, in fact, did take place in the time of Claudius. 29 So the disciples determined, each according to what he could afford,+ to send relief*+ to the brothers living in Ju·de′a; 30 and this they did, sending it to the elders by the hand of Bar′na·bas and Saul.+
 
12 About that time Herod the king began mistreating some of those of the congregation.+ 2 He put James the brother of John+ to death by the sword.+ 3 When he saw that it was pleasing to the Jews, he also went on to arrest Peter. (This was during the days of the Unleavened Bread.)+ 4 He seized him and put him in prison,+ turning him over to four shifts of four soldiers each to guard him, intending to bring him out* before the people after the Passover. 5 So Peter was being kept in the prison, but the congregation was intensely praying to God for him.+
6 When Herod was about to bring him out, that night Peter was sleeping bound with two chains between two soldiers, and guards in front of the door were keeping watch over the prison. 7 But look! Jehovah’s* angel was standing there,+ and a light shone in the prison cell. Hitting Peter on the side, he woke him, saying: “Get up quickly!” And the chains fell off his hands.+ 8 The angel said to him: “Get dressed* and put on your sandals.” He did so. Finally he said to him: “Put your outer garment on, and keep following me.” 9 And he went out and kept following him, but he did not know that what was happening through the angel was real. In fact, he thought he was seeing a vision. 10 Going past the first sentinel guard and the second, they reached the iron gate leading into the city, and this opened to them by itself. After they went out, they made their way down one street, and immediately the angel departed from him. 11 And Peter, realizing what was happening, said: “Now I know for sure that Jehovah* sent his angel and rescued me from Herod’s hand and from everything that the Jews were expecting to happen.”+
12 After he realized this, he went to the house of Mary the mother of John who was called Mark,+ where quite a few were gathered together and were praying. 13 When he knocked at the door of the gateway, a servant girl named Rhoda came to answer the call. 14 On recognizing the voice of Peter, she was so overjoyed that she did not open the gate, but ran inside and reported that Peter was standing at the gateway. 15 They said to her: “You are out of your mind.” But she kept insisting that it was so. They began to say: “It is his angel.” 16 But Peter remained there, knocking. When they opened the door, they saw him and were astonished. 17 But he motioned to them with his hand to be silent and told them in detail how Jehovah* had brought him out of the prison, and he said: “Report these things to James+ and the brothers.” With that he went out and traveled to another place.
18 Now when it became day, there was quite a disturbance among the soldiers over what had become of Peter. 19 Herod made a diligent search for him, and not finding him, he interrogated the guards and commanded them to be led off to punishment;+ and he went down from Ju·de′a to Caes·a·re′a and spent some time there.
20 Now he was in an angry* mood against the people of Tyre and Si′don. So they came to him with one purpose, and after persuading Blastus, the man in charge of the king’s household affairs,* they sued for peace, because their country was supplied with food from the land of the king. 21 On a set day, Herod clothed himself with royal raiment and sat down on the judgment seat and began giving them a public address. 22 Then the people who were assembled began shouting: “A god’s voice, and not a man’s!” 23 Instantly the angel of Jehovah* struck him, because he did not give the glory to God, and he was eaten up with worms and died.
24 But the word of Jehovah* went on growing and spreading.+
25 As for Bar′na·bas+ and Saul, after fully carrying out the relief work in Jerusalem,+ they returned and took along with them John,+ the one also called Mark.
 
 
 
13 Now in Antioch there were prophets and teachers in the local congregation:+ Bar′na·bas, Sym′e·on who was called Ni′ger, Lucius of Cy·re′ne, Man′a·en who was educated with Herod the district ruler, and Saul. 2 As they were ministering* to Jehovah* and fasting, the holy spirit said: “Set aside for me Bar′na·bas and Saul+ for the work to which I have called them.”+ 3 Then after fasting and praying, they laid their hands on them and sent them off.
4 So these men, sent out by the holy spirit, went down to Se·leu′cia, and from there they sailed away to Cy′prus. 5 When they arrived in Sal′a·mis, they began proclaiming the word of God in the synagogues of the Jews. They also had John as an attendant.*+
6 When they had gone through the whole island as far as Pa′phos, they met up with a Jewish man named Bar-Je′sus, who was a sorcerer and a false prophet. 7 He was with the proconsul* Sergius Paulus, an intelligent man. Calling Bar′na·bas and Saul to him, this man was eager to hear the word of God. 8 But El′y·mas the sorcerer (for that is how his name is translated) began opposing them, trying to turn the proconsul away from the faith. 9 Then Saul, also called Paul, becoming filled with holy spirit, looked at him intently 10 and said: “O man full of every sort of fraud and every sort of villainy, you son of the Devil,+ you enemy of everything righteous, will you not quit distorting the right ways of Jehovah?* 11 Look! Jehovah’s* hand is upon you, and you will be blind, not seeing the sunlight for a time.” Instantly a thick mist and darkness fell on him, and he went around trying to find someone to lead him by the hand. 12 Then the proconsul, on seeing what had happened, became a believer, for he was astounded at the teaching of Jehovah.*
13 Now Paul and his companions put out to sea from Pa′phos and arrived at Perga in Pam·phyl′i·a. But John+ left them and returned to Jerusalem.+ 14 However, they went on from Perga and came to Antioch in Pi·sid′i·a. And going into the synagogue+ on the Sabbath day, they took a seat. 15 After the public reading of the Law+ and the Prophets, the presiding officers of the synagogue sent word to them, saying: “Men, brothers, if you have any word of encouragement for the people, tell it.” 16 So Paul stood up, and motioning with his hand, he said:
“Men, Israelites and you others who fear God, listen. 17 The God of this people Israel chose our forefathers, and he exalted the people while they lived as foreigners in the land of Egypt and brought them out of it with an uplifted arm.+ 18 And for a period of about 40 years, he put up with them in the wilderness.+ 19 After destroying seven nations in the land of Ca′naan, he assigned their land as an inheritance.+ 20 All of that was during about 450 years.
“After this he gave them judges until Samuel the prophet.+ 21 But afterward they demanded a king,+ and God gave them Saul the son of Kish, a man of the tribe of Benjamin,+ for 40 years. 22 After removing him, he raised up for them David as king,+ about whom he bore witness and said: ‘I have found David the son of Jes′se+ a man agreeable to my heart;+ he will do all the things I desire.’ 23 According to his promise, from the offspring* of this man, God has brought to Israel a savior, Jesus.+ 24 Before the arrival of that one, John had preached publicly to all the people of Israel baptism in symbol of repentance.+ 25 But as John was finishing his course, he would say: ‘What do you suppose I am? I am not he. But look! One is coming after me the sandals of whose feet I am not worthy to untie.’+
26 “Men, brothers, you descendants of Abraham’s family and those others among you who fear God, the word of this salvation has been sent to us.+ 27 For the inhabitants of Jerusalem and their rulers did not recognize this one, but when acting as judges, they fulfilled the things spoken by the Prophets,+ which are read aloud every sabbath. 28 Even though they found no cause for death,+ they demanded of Pilate to have him executed.+ 29 And when they had accomplished all the things written about him, they took him down from the stake* and laid him in a tomb.*+ 30 But God raised him up from the dead,+ 31 and for many days he became visible to those who had gone with him from Gal′i·lee up to Jerusalem. These are now his witnesses to the people.+
32 “So we are declaring to you the good news about the promise made to the forefathers. 33 God has completely fulfilled it to us, their children, by resurrecting Jesus;+ just as it is written in the second psalm: ‘You are my son; today I have become your father.’+ 34 And the fact that He resurrected him from the dead never again to return to corruption, He has stated in this way: ‘I will give you the expressions of loyal love promised to David, which are faithful.’*+ 35 So it also says in another psalm: ‘You will not allow your loyal one to see corruption.’+ 36 David, on the one hand, rendered service to God* in his own generation, fell asleep in death, was laid with his forefathers, and did see corruption.+ 37 On the other hand, the one whom God raised up did not see corruption.+
38 “Let it therefore be known to you, brothers, that through this one a forgiveness of sins is being proclaimed to you,+ 39 and that from all the things from which you could not be declared guiltless by means of the Law of Moses,+ everyone who believes is declared guiltless by means of this one.+ 40 Therefore, watch out that what is said in the Prophets does not come upon you: 41 ‘Look at it, you scorners, and be amazed, and perish, for I am doing a work in your days, a work that you will never believe even if anyone relates it to you in detail.’”+
42 Now when they were going out, the people pleaded with them to speak about these matters on the following Sabbath. 43 So after the synagogue assembly was dismissed, many of the Jews and the proselytes who worshipped God followed Paul and Bar′na·bas, who, as they spoke to them, urged them to remain in the undeserved kindness of God.+
44 The next Sabbath nearly all the city gathered together to hear the word of Jehovah.* 45 When the Jews saw the crowds, they were filled with jealousy and began blasphemously contradicting the things Paul was saying.+ 46 Then Paul and Bar′na·bas boldly said to them: “It was necessary for the word of God to be spoken first to you.+ Since you are rejecting it and do not judge yourselves worthy of everlasting life, look! we turn to the nations.+ 47 For Jehovah* has commanded us in these words: ‘I have appointed you as a light of nations, for you to be a salvation to the ends of the earth.’”+
48 When those of the nations heard this, they began to rejoice and to glorify the word of Jehovah,* and all those who were rightly disposed for everlasting life became believers. 49 Furthermore, the word of Jehovah* was being spread throughout the whole country. 50 But the Jews incited the prominent women who were God-fearing and the principal men of the city, and they stirred up persecution+ against Paul and Bar′na·bas and threw them outside their boundaries. 51 So they shook the dust off their feet against them and went to I·co′ni·um.+ 52 And the disciples continued to be filled with joy+ and holy spirit.
 
 
14 Now in I·co′ni·um they entered together into the synagogue of the Jews and spoke in such a manner that a great multitude of both Jews and Greeks became believers. 2 But the Jews who did not believe stirred up and wrongly influenced the people* of the nations against the brothers.+ 3 So they spent considerable time speaking with boldness by the authority of Jehovah,* who bore witness to the word of his undeserved kindness by allowing signs and wonders* to be performed through them.+ 4 However, the multitude of the city was divided; some were for the Jews but others for the apostles. 5 When both the people of the nations and the Jews with their rulers made an attempt to treat them insolently and stone them,+ 6 they were informed of it, and they fled to the cities of Lyc·a·o′ni·a, Lys′tra and Der′be, and to the surrounding country.+ 7 There they went on declaring the good news.
8 Now in Lys′tra there was a man sitting down whose feet were crippled. He was lame from birth and had never walked. 9 This man was listening to Paul as he was speaking. Paul, looking intently at him and seeing that he had faith to be made well,+ 10 said with a loud voice: “Stand up on your feet.” So the man leaped up and began walking.+ 11 When the crowds saw what Paul had done, they cried out in the Lyc·a·o′ni·an language: “The gods have become like humans and have come down to us!”+ 12 And they started calling Bar′na·bas Zeus, but Paul Her′mes, since he was taking the lead in speaking. 13 And the priest of Zeus, whose temple was at the entrance of the city, brought bulls and garlands* to the gates and wanted to offer sacrifices with the crowds.
14 However, when the apostles Bar′na·bas and Paul heard of it, they ripped their garments and leaped out into the crowd and cried out: 15 “Men, why are you doing these things? We too are humans having the same infirmities as you have.+ And we are declaring the good news to you, for you to turn from these vain things to the living God, who made the heaven and the earth and the sea and all the things in them.+ 16 In past generations he permitted all the nations to go on in their ways,+ 17 although he did not leave himself without witness+ in that he did good, giving you rains from heaven and fruitful seasons,+ satisfying you with food and filling your hearts with gladness.”+ 18 And yet despite saying these things, they barely restrained the crowds from sacrificing to them.
19 But Jews arrived from Antioch and I·co′ni·um and persuaded the crowds,+ and they stoned Paul and dragged him outside the city, imagining that he was dead.+ 20 However, when the disciples surrounded him, he got up and entered the city. On the next day he left with Bar′na·bas for Der′be.+ 21 After declaring the good news to that city and making quite a few disciples, they returned to Lys′tra, I·co′ni·um, and Antioch. 22 There they strengthened the disciples,*+ encouraging them to remain in the faith and saying: “We must enter into the Kingdom of God through many tribulations.”+ 23 Moreover, they appointed elders for them in each congregation,+ offering prayer with fasting,+ and they entrusted them to Jehovah,* in whom they had become believers.
24 Then they went through Pi·sid′i·a and came into Pam·phyl′i·a,+ 25 and after proclaiming the word in Perga, they went down to At·ta·li′a. 26 From there they sailed off for Antioch, where they had been entrusted to the undeserved kindness of God for the work they had now completed.+
27 When they had arrived and had gathered the congregation together, they related the many things God had done by means of them, and that he had opened to the nations the door to faith.+ 28 So they spent considerable time with the disciples.
 
 
 
15 Now some men came down from Ju·de′a and began to teach the brothers: “Unless you get circumcised according to the custom of Moses,+ you cannot be saved.” 2 But after quite a bit of dissension and disputing by Paul and Bar′na·bas with them, it was arranged for Paul, Bar′na·bas, and some of the others to go up to the apostles and elders in Jerusalem+ regarding this issue.*
3 So after being escorted partway by the congregation, these men continued on through both Phoe·ni′cia and Sa·mar′i·a, relating in detail the conversion of people of the nations and bringing great joy to all the brothers. 4 On arriving in Jerusalem, they were kindly received by the congregation and the apostles and the elders, and they related the many things God had done by means of them. 5 But some of those of the sect of the Pharisees who had become believers stood up from their seats and said: “It is necessary to circumcise them and command them to observe the Law of Moses.”+
6 So the apostles and the elders gathered together to look into this matter. 7 After much intense discussion* had taken place, Peter rose and said to them: “Men, brothers, you well know that from early days God made the choice among you that through my mouth people of the nations should hear the word of the good news and believe.+ 8 And God, who knows the heart,+ bore witness by giving them the holy spirit,+ just as he did to us also. 9 And he made no distinction at all between us and them,+ but purified their hearts by faith.+ 10 So why are you now making a test of God by imposing on the neck of the disciples a yoke+ that neither our forefathers nor we were capable of bearing?+ 11 On the contrary, we have faith that we are saved through the undeserved kindness of the Lord Jesus+ in the same way that they are.”+
12 At that the entire group became silent, and they began to listen to Bar′na·bas and Paul relate the many signs and wonders* that God had done through them among the nations. 13 After they finished speaking, James replied: “Men, brothers, hear me. 14 Sym′e·on+ has related thoroughly how God for the first time turned his attention to the nations to take out of them a people for his name.+ 15 And with this the words of the Prophets agree, just as it is written: 16 ‘After these things I will return and raise up again the tent* of David that is fallen down; I will rebuild its ruins and restore it, 17 so that the men who remain may earnestly seek Jehovah,* together with people of all the nations, people who are called by my name, says Jehovah,* who is doing these things,+ 18 known from of old.’+ 19 Therefore, my decision* is not to trouble those from the nations who are turning to God,+ 20 but to write them to abstain from things polluted by idols,+ from sexual immorality,*+ from what is strangled,* and from blood.+ 21 For from ancient times Moses has had those who preach him in city after city, because he is read aloud in the synagogues on every sabbath.”+
22 Then the apostles and the elders, together with the whole congregation, decided to send chosen men from among them to Antioch, along with Paul and Bar′na·bas; they sent Judas who was called Bar′sab·bas and Silas,+ who were leading men among the brothers. 23 They wrote this and sent it through them:
“The apostles and the elders, your brothers, to those brothers in Antioch,+ Syria, and Ci·li′cia who are from the nations: Greetings! 24 Since we have heard that some went out from among us and caused you trouble with what they have said,+ trying to subvert you,* although we did not give them any instructions, 25 we have come to a unanimous decision to choose men to send to you together with our beloved Bar′na·bas and Paul, 26 men who have given up their lives* for the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.+ 27 We are therefore sending Judas and Silas, so that they also may report the same things by word of mouth.+ 28 For the holy spirit+ and we ourselves have favored adding no further burden to you except these necessary things: 29 to keep abstaining from things sacrificed to idols,+ from blood,+ from what is strangled,*+ and from sexual immorality.*+ If you carefully keep yourselves from these things, you will prosper. Good health to you!”*
30 So when these men were dismissed, they went down to Antioch, and they gathered the whole group together and handed them the letter. 31 After reading it, they rejoiced over the encouragement. 32 And Judas and Silas, since they were also prophets, encouraged the brothers with many talks and strengthened them.+ 33 After they had spent some time there, they were sent off in peace by the brothers to those who had sent them. 34* —— 35 But Paul and Bar′na·bas stayed in Antioch, teaching and declaring, along with many others, the good news of the word of Jehovah.*
36 After some days, Paul said to Bar′na·bas: “Let us now* return and visit the brothers in every one of the cities where we proclaimed the word of Jehovah,* to see how they are.”+ 37 Bar′na·bas was determined to take along John, who was called Mark.+ 38 Paul, however, was not in favor of taking him along with them, seeing that he had departed from them in Pam·phyl′i·a and had not gone with them to the work.+ 39 At this there was a sharp burst of anger, so that they separated from each other; and Bar′na·bas+ took Mark along and sailed away to Cy′prus. 40 Paul selected Silas and departed after he had been entrusted by the brothers to the undeserved kindness of Jehovah.*+ 41 He went through Syria and Ci·li′cia, strengthening the congregations.

Monday, 9 June 2014

On Mathematics and Darwinism IV:The second law of thermodynamics.





On Mathematics and Darwinism III:The second law of thermodynamics.




On mathematics and Darwinism II


A Mathematician's View of Evolution

Granville Sewell


In 1996, Lehigh University biochemist Michael Behe published a book entitled "Darwin's Black Box" [Free Press], whose central theme is that every living cell is loaded with features and biochemical processes which are "irreducibly complex"--that is, they require the existence of numerous complex components, each essential for function. Thus, these features and processes cannot be explained by gradual Darwinian improvements, because until all the components are in place, these assemblages are completely useless, and thus provide no selective advantage. Behe spends over 100 pages describing some of these irreducibly complex biochemical systems in detail, then summarizes the results of an exhaustive search of the biochemical literature for Darwinian explanations. He concludes that while biochemistry texts often pay lip-service to the idea that natural selection of random mutations can explain everything in the cell, such claims are pure "bluster", because "there is no publication in the scientific literature that describes how molecular evolution of any real, complex, biochemical system either did occur or even might have occurred."
When Dr. Behe was at the University of Texas El Paso in May of 1997 to give an invited talk, I told him that I thought he would find more support for his ideas in mathematics, physics and computer science departments than in his own field. I know a good many mathematicians, physicists and computer scientists who, like me, are appalled that Darwin's explanation for the development of life is so widely accepted in the life sciences. Few of them ever speak out or write on this issue, however--perhaps because they feel the question is simply out of their domain. However, I believe there are two central arguments against Darwinism, and both seem to be most readily appreciated by those in the more mathematical sciences.
  1. The cornerstone of Darwinism is the idea that major (complex) improvements can be built up through many minor improvements; that the new organs and new systems of organs which gave rise to new orders, classes and phyla developed gradually, through many very minor improvements. We should first note that the fossil record does not support this idea, for example, Harvard paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson ["The History of Life," in Volume I of "Evolution after Darwin," University of Chicago Press, 1960] writes:
    "It is a feature of the known fossil record that most taxa appear abruptly. They are not, as a rule, led up to by a sequence of almost imperceptibly changing forerunners such as Darwin believed should be usual in evolution...This phenomenon becomes more universal and more intense as the hierarchy of categories is ascended. Gaps among known species are sporadic and often small. Gaps among known orders, classes and phyla are systematic and almost always large. These peculiarities of the record pose one of the most important theoretical problems in the whole history of life: Is the sudden appearance of higher categories a phenomenon of evolution or of the record only, due to sampling bias and other inadequacies?"
    An April, 1982, Life Magazine article (excerpted from Francis Hitching's book, "The Neck of the Giraffe: Where Darwin Went Wrong") contains the following report:
    "When you look for links between major groups of animals, they simply aren't there...'Instead of finding the gradual unfolding of life', writes David M. Raup, a curator of Chicago's Field Museum of Natural History, 'what geologists of Darwin's time and geologists of the present day actually find is a highly uneven or jerky record; that is, species appear in the fossil sequence very suddenly, show little or no change during their existence, then abruptly disappear.' These are not negligible gaps. They are periods, in all the major evolutionary transitions, when immense physiological changes had to take place."
    Even among biologists, the idea that new organs, and thus higher categories, could develop gradually through tiny improvements has often been challenged. How could the "survival of the fittest" guide the development of new organs through their initial useless stages, during which they obviously present no selective advantage? (This is often referred to as the "problem of novelties".) Or guide the development of entire new systems, such as nervous, circulatory, digestive, respiratory and reproductive systems, which would require the simultaneous development of several new interdependent organs, none of which is useful, or provides any selective advantage, by itself? French biologist Jean Rostand, for example, wrote ["A Biologist's View," Wm. Heinemann Ltd. 1956]:
    "It does not seem strictly impossible that mutations should have introduced into the animal kingdom the differences which exist between one species and the next...hence it is very tempting to lay also at their door the differences between classes, families and orders, and, in short, the whole of evolution. But it is obvious that such an extrapolation involves the gratuitous attribution to the mutations of the past of a magnitude and power of innovation much greater than is shown by those of today."
    Behe's book is primarily a challenge to this cornerstone of Darwinism at the microscopic level. Although we may not be familiar with the complex biochemical systems discussed in this book, I believe mathematicians are well qualified to appreciate the general ideas involved. And although an analogy is only an analogy, perhaps the best way to understand Behe's argument is by comparing the development of the genetic code of life with the development of a computer program. Suppose an engineer attempts to design a structural analysis computer program, writing it in a machine language that is totally unknown to him. He simply types out random characters at his keyboard, and periodically runs tests on the program to recognize and select out chance improvements when they occur. The improvements are permanently incorporated into the program while the other changes are discarded. If our engineer continues this process of random changes and testing for a long enough time, could he eventually develop a sophisticated structural analysis program? (Of course, when intelligent humans decide what constitutes an "improvement", this is really artificial selection, so the analogy is far too generous.) If a billion engineers were to type at the rate of one random character per second, there is virtually no chance that any one of them would, given the 4.5 billion year age of the Earth to work on it, accidentally duplicate a given 20-character improvement. Thus our engineer cannot count on making any major improvements through chance alone. But could he not perhaps make progress through the accumulation of very small improvements? The Darwinist would presumably say, yes, but to anyone who has had minimal programming experience this idea is equally implausible. Major improvements to a computer program often require the addition or modification of hundreds of interdependent lines, no one of which makes any sense, or results in any improvement, when added by itself. Even the smallest improvements usually require adding several new lines. It is conceivable that a programmer unable to look ahead more than 5 or 6 characters at a time might be able to make some very slight improvements to a computer program, but it is inconceivable that he could design anything sophisticated without the ability to plan far ahead and to guide his changes toward that plan.
    If archeologists of some future society were to unearth the many versions of my PDE solver, PDE2D , which I have produced over the last 20 years, they would certainly note a steady increase in complexity over time, and they would see many obvious similarities between each new version and the previous one. In the beginning it was only able to solve a single linear, steady-state, 2D equation in a polygonal region. Since then, PDE2D has developed many new abilities: it now solves nonlinear problems, time-dependent and eigenvalue problems, systems of simultaneous equations, and it now handles general curved 2D regions. Over the years, many new types of graphical output capabilities have evolved, and in 1991 it developed an interactive preprocessor, and more recently PDE2D has adapted to 3D and 1D problems. An archeologist attempting to explain the evolution of this computer program in terms of many tiny improvements might be puzzled to find that each of these major advances (new classes or phyla??) appeared suddenly in new versions; for example, the ability to solve 3D problems first appeared in version 4.0. Less major improvements (new families or orders??) appeared suddenly in new subversions, for example, the ability to solve 3D problems with periodic boundary conditions first appeared in version 5.6. In fact, the record of PDE2D's development would be similar to the fossil record, with large gaps where major new features appeared, and smaller gaps where minor ones appeared. That is because the multitude of intermediate programs between versions or subversions which the archeologist might expect to find never existed, because-- for example--none of the changes I made for edition 4.0 made any sense, or provided PDE2D any advantage whatever in solving 3D problems (or anything else) until hundreds of lines had been added.
    Whether at the microscopic or macroscopic level, major, complex, evolutionary advances, involving new features (as opposed to minor, quantitative changes such as an increase in the length of the giraffe's neck1, or the darkening of the wings of a moth, which clearly could occur gradually) also involve the addition of many interrelated and interdependent pieces. These complex advances, like those made to computer programs, are not always "irreducibly complex"--sometimes there are intermediate useful stages. But just as major improvements to a computer program cannot be made 5 or 6 characters at a time, certainly no major evolutionary advance is reducible to a chain of tiny improvements, each small enough to be bridged by a single random mutation.
  2. The other point is very simple, but also seems to be appreciated only by more mathematically-oriented people. It is that to attribute the development of life on Earth to natural selection is to assign to it--and to it alone, of all known natural "forces"--the ability to violate the second law of thermodynamics and to cause order to arise from disorder. It is often argued that since the Earth is not a closed system--it receives energy from the Sun, for example-- the second law is not applicable in this case. It is true that order can increase locally, if the local increase is compensated by a decrease elsewhere, ie, an open system can be taken to a less probable state by importing order from outside. For example, we could transport a truckload of encyclopedias and computers to the moon, thereby increasing the order on the moon, without violating the second law. But the second law of thermodynamics--at least the underlying principle behind this law--simply says that natural forces do not cause extremely improbable things to happen2, and it is absurd to argue that because the Earth receives energy from the Sun, this principle was not violated here when the original rearrangement of atoms into encyclopedias and computers occurred. The biologist studies the details of natural history, and when he looks at the similarities between two species of butterflies, he is understandably reluctant to attribute the small differences to the supernatural. But the mathematician or physicist is likely to take the broader view. I imagine visiting the Earth when it was young and returning now to find highways with automobiles on them, airports with jet airplanes, and tall buildings full of complicated equipment, such as televisions, telephones and computers. Then I imagine the construction of a gigantic computer model which starts with the initial conditions on Earth 4 billion years ago and tries to simulate the effects that the four known forces of physics (the gravitational, electromagnetic and strong and weak nuclear forces) would have on every atom and every subatomic particle on our planet (perhaps using random number generators to model quantum uncertainties!). If we ran such a simulation out to the present day, would it predict that the basic forces of Nature would reorganize the basic particles of Nature into libraries full of encyclopedias, science texts and novels, nuclear power plants, aircraft carriers with supersonic jets parked on deck, and computers connected to laser printers, CRTs and keyboards? If we graphically displayed the positions of the atoms at the end of the simulation, would we find that cars and trucks had formed, or that supercomputers had arisen? Certainly we would not, and I do not believe that adding sunlight to the model would help much. Clearly something extremely improbable has happened here on our planet, with the origin and development of life, and especially with the development of human consciousness and creativity.