On Roman emperor Constantine.

PORTRAITS FROM THE PAST

 

A reproduction of the Watchtower Society's article

 

 

Constantine

 

Constantine was the first Roman emperor to profess Christianity. By doing so, he profoundly influenced world history. He embraced this previously persecuted religion and set it on a path that led to the formation of Christendom. Thus, so-called Christianity became “the strongest social and political agent” ever to influence the course of history, according to The Encyclopædia Britannica.

WHY should you care about an ancient Roman emperor? If you are interested in Christianity, you should know that Constantine’s political and religious maneuvers have affected the beliefs and practices of many churches right down to this day. Let us see how.

THE CHURCHES—LEGALIZED AND THEN USED

In 313 C.E., Constantine ruled over the Western Roman Empire, while Licinius and Maximinus ruled over the East. Constantine and Licinius granted freedom of worship to all, including Christians. Constantine protected Christianity, believing that the religion could unify his empire.*

Constantine was thus appalled to find that the churches were divided by disputes. Eager for consensus, he sought to establish, and then enforce, “correct” doctrine. To win his favor, bishops had to make religious compromises, and those who did received tax exemptions and generous patronage. “Getting the ‘right’ version of Christian doctrine,” said historian Charles Freeman, “gave access not only to heaven but to vast resources on earth.” The clergy thus became powerful figures in worldly affairs. “The Church had acquired a protector,” says historian A.H.M. Jones, “but it had also acquired a master.”

WHAT KIND OF CHRISTIANITY?

A result of Constantine’s alliance with the bishops was a religion with tenets that were part Christian, part pagan. It could hardly have been otherwise, since the emperor’s goal was religious pluralism, not the pursuit of religious truth. He was, after all, the ruler of a pagan empire. To please both religious camps, he adopted a stance of “conscious ambiguity in his acts and government in general,” wrote one historian.

While professing to champion Christianity, Constantine kept one foot in paganism. For example, he practiced astrology and divination—occult activities that the Bible condemns. (Deuteronomy 18:10-12) On the Arch of Constantine in Rome, he is shown sacrificing to pagan deities. He continued to honor the sun-god by featuring the deity on coins and promoting the sun-god cult. Late in life, Constantine even permitted a small town in Umbria, Italy, to construct a temple to his family and himself and to appoint priests to serve there.

Constantine postponed his “Christian” baptism until a few days before his death in 337 C.E. Many scholars believe that he held back in order to retain the political support of both Christian and pagan elements within the empire. To be sure, his life record and the lateness of his baptism raise questions about the sincerity of his professed faith in Christ. However, one thing is certain: The church Constantine legitimized became a powerful political and religious entity, one that thus turned its back on Christ and embraced the world. Jesus said of his followers: “They are no part of the world, just as I am no part of the world.” (John 17:14) From this church—that was now worldly—sprang countless denominations.

What does all of this mean for us? It means that we should not take the teachings of any church for granted but that we should examine them in the light of the Bible.—1 John 4:1.

[Footnote]

The sincerity of Constantine’s Christian convictions has been much debated, in part because of “his apparent concessions to pagan cults, even late in his reign,” according to one reference.

[Box on page 12]

QUICK FACTS

▸ Constantine became emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 306 C.E. and was sole emperor of both the East and the West from 324 to 337.

▸ Constantine claimed that in either a dream or a vision he was assured that the God of the Christians would assist him in battle.

▸ Attributing a certain military victory to God, Constantine “immediately ordered” that a spear in the form of a cross be placed in the hand of his own statue “in the most frequented place in Rome.”—Paul Keresztes, historian.

▸ Constantine held the pagan title pontifex maximus, or chief priest, and thought himself overlord of all religions in his realm.

[Blurb on page 13]

“The Church had acquired a protector, but it had also acquired a master.”—A.H.M. Jones, historian

[Box on page 13]

The Arch of Constantine commemorates his victory in battle

• “A good emperor—even a good Christian—would inevitably find himself compelled to choose between losing heaven and losing power. Having just assumed the throne, Constantine was by no means finished either with power or with committing the sins necessary to retain it.”—Richard Rubenstein, professor of conflict resolution and public affairs.

• “That Constantine was a Christian at least at the end of his life cannot be doubted, provided that one does not judge the question by the quality of his Christianity.”—Paul Keresztes, professor of classics and history.

WWII:Did the ends Justify the means?Pros and cons.

Hebrews1-3 NWT(2013 Edition)

1 Long ago God spoke to our forefathers by means of the prophets on many occasions and in many ways.+ 2 Now at the end of these days he has spoken to us by means of a Son,+ whom he appointed heir of all things,+ and through whom he made the systems of things.*+ 3 He is the reflection of God’s glory+ and the exact representation of his very being,+ and he sustains all things by the word of his power. And after he had made a purification for our sins,+ he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high.+ 4 So he has become better than the angels+ to the extent that he has inherited a name more excellent than theirs.+

5 For example, to which one of the angels did God ever say: “You are my son; today I have become your father”?+ And again: “I will become his father, and he will become my son”?+ 6 But when he again brings his Firstborn+ into the inhabited earth, he says: “And let all of God’s angels do obeisance to him.”*

7 Also, he says about the angels: “He makes his angels spirits, and his ministers*+ a flame of fire.”+ 8 But about the Son, he says: “God is your throne+ forever and ever, and the scepter of your Kingdom is the scepter of uprightness.* 9 You loved righteousness, and you hated lawlessness. That is why God, your God, anointed you+ with the oil of exultation more than your companions.”+ 10 And: “At the beginning, O Lord, you laid the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the works of your hands. 11 They will perish, but you will remain; and just like a garment, they will all wear out, 12 and you will wrap them up just as a cloak, as a garment, and they will be changed. But you are the same, and your years will never come to an end.”+

13 But about which of the angels has he ever said: “Sit at my right hand until I place your enemies as a stool for your feet”?+ 14 Are they not all spirits for holy service,*+ sent out to minister for those who are going to inherit salvation?

 

2 That is why it is necessary for us to pay more than the usual attention to the things we have heard,+ so that we never drift away.+ 2 For if the word spoken through angels+ proved to be sure, and every transgression and disobedient act received a punishment in harmony with justice,+ 3 how will we escape if we have neglected so great a salvation?+ For it began to be spoken through our Lord+ and was verified for us by those who heard him, 4 while God joined in bearing witness with signs and wonders* and various powerful works+ and with the holy spirit distributed according to his will.+

5 For it is not to angels that he has subjected the inhabited earth to come,+ about which we are speaking. 6 But in one place a certain witness said: “What is man that you keep him in mind, or a son of man that you take care of him?+ 7 You made him a little lower than angels; you crowned him with glory and honor, and appointed him over the works of your hands. 8 All things you subjected under his feet.”+ By subjecting all things to him,+ God left nothing that is not subject to him.+ Now, though, we do not yet see all things in subjection to him.+ 9 But we do see Jesus, who was made a little lower than angels,+ now crowned with glory and honor for having suffered death,+ so that by God’s undeserved kindness he might taste death for everyone.+

10 For it was fitting that the one for whom and through whom all things exist, in bringing many sons to glory,+ should make the Chief Agent of their salvation+ perfect through sufferings.+ 11 For both the one who is sanctifying and those who are being sanctified+ all stem from one,+ and for this reason he is not ashamed to call them brothers,+ 12 as he says: “I will declare your name to my brothers; in the midst of the congregation I will praise you with song.”+ 13 And again: “I will put my trust in him.”+ And again: “Look! I and the young children, whom Jehovah* gave me.”+

14 Therefore, since the “young children” are sharers of blood and flesh, he also similarly shared in the same things,+ so that through his death he might bring to nothing the one having the means to cause death,+ that is, the Devil,+ 15 and that he might set free* all those who were held in slavery all their lives by their fear of death.+ 16 For it is not really angels he is assisting, but he is assisting Abraham’s offspring.*+ 17 Consequently, he had to become like his “brothers” in all respects,+ so that he could become a merciful and faithful high priest in things relating to God, in order to offer a propitiatory sacrifice*+ for the sins of the people.+ 18 Since he himself has suffered when being put to the test,+ he is able to come to the aid of those who are being put to the test.+

 

3 Consequently, holy brothers, partakers of the heavenly calling,*+ consider the apostle and high priest whom we acknowledge*—Jesus.+ 2 He was faithful to the One who appointed him,+ just as Moses also was in all the house of that One.+ 3 For he* is counted worthy of more glory+ than Moses, since the one who constructs a house has more honor than the house itself. 4 Of course, every house is constructed by someone, but the one who constructed all things is God. 5 Now Moses was faithful as an attendant in all the house of that One as a testimony* of the things that were to be spoken afterward, 6 but Christ was faithful as a son+ over God’s house. We are His house+ if, indeed, we hold on firmly to our freeness of speech and the hope of which we boast down to the end.

7 Therefore, just as the holy spirit says,+ “Today if you listen to his voice, 8 do not harden your hearts as on the occasion of provoking to bitter anger, as in the day of testing in the wilderness,+ 9 where your forefathers put me to the test and tried me, despite seeing my works for 40 years.+ 10 This is why I became disgusted with this generation and said: ‘They always go astray in their hearts, and they have not come to know my ways.’ 11 So I swore in my anger: ‘They will not enter into my rest.’”+

12 Beware, brothers, for fear there should ever develop in any one of you a wicked heart lacking faith by drawing away from the living God;+ 13 but keep on encouraging one another each day, as long as it is called “Today,”+ so that none of you should become hardened by the deceptive power of sin. 14 For we actually become partakers of* the Christ only if we hold firmly down to the end the confidence we had at the beginning.+ 15 As it is said, “Today if you listen to his voice, do not harden your hearts as on the occasion of provoking to bitter anger.”+

16 For who heard and yet provoked him to bitter anger? Was it not, in fact, all those who went out of Egypt under Moses?+ 17 Moreover, with whom did God become disgusted for 40 years?+ Was it not with those who sinned, whose dead bodies fell in the wilderness?+ 18 And to whom did he swear that they would not enter into his rest? Was it not to those who acted disobediently? 19 So we see that they could not enter in because of lack of faith.+

 

The Watchtower Society's Commentary on the Book of Deuteronomy

A reproduction of the Watchtower Society's article  

 

DEUTERONOMY

 

 

The Hebrew name of this fifth book of the Pentateuch is Deva·rim′ (Words), drawn from the opening phrase in the Hebrew text. The name “Deuteronomy” comes from the Septuagint Greek title Deu·te·ro·no′mi·on, literally meaning “Second Law; Repetition of the Law.” This comes from the Greek rendering of a Hebrew phrase in Deuteronomy 17:18, mish·neh′ hat·toh·rah′, correctly rendered ‘copy of the law.’

The authenticity of Deuteronomy as a book of the Bible canon and the writership of Moses are well established by the fact that Deuteronomy has always been considered by the Jews as a part of the Law of Moses. The evidence for the authenticity of Deuteronomy is, in general, the same as that for the other four books of the Pentateuch. (See PENTATEUCH; also books under individual names.) Jesus is the foremost authority for the authenticity of Deuteronomy, quoting from it three times in turning away the temptations of Satan the Devil. (Mt 4:1-11; De 6:13, 16; 8:3) Also, Jesus answered the question as to what was the greatest and first commandment by quoting from Deuteronomy 6:5. (Mr 12:30) And Paul quotes from Deuteronomy 30:12-14; 32:35, 36.—Ro 10:6-8; Heb 10:30.

The time covered by the book of Deuteronomy is somewhat over two months in the year 1473 B.C.E. It was written on the Plains of Moab and consists of four discourses, a song, and a blessing by Moses as Israel camped on Canaan’s borders prior to entering the land.—De 1:3; Jos 1:11; 4:19.

Purpose. Despite the meaning of the name Deuteronomy, this book is not a second law nor a repetition of the entire Law but, rather, an explanation of it, as Deuteronomy 1:5 says. It exhorts Israel to faithfulness to Jehovah, using the generation of the 40 years’ wandering as an example to avoid. Moses explains and elaborates on some of the essential points of the Law and the principles therein, with a view to the altered circumstances of Israel when they would be settled permanently in the land. He adjusts some of the laws accordingly and gives further regulations concerning the administration of government in their settled condition in the Promised Land.

In exhorting them and calling on them to enter into this renewed covenant with Jehovah through Moses, the book of Deuteronomy places the emphasis strikingly on knowledge, teaching, and instruction. The words “teach,” “teaching,” and “taught” occur much more often in Deuteronomy than in Exodus, Leviticus, or Numbers. Moses explained that Jehovah was teaching Israel by feeding them with manna. (De 8:3) He told the Israelites to place Jehovah’s law, figuratively speaking, as frontlets between their eyes and on the doorposts of their houses and on their gates. (6:8, 9) He commanded them to inculcate his law in their sons. (6:6, 7) Instructions were given to read the Law every seventh year, during the time of the (annual) Festival of Booths. (31:10-13) Special instructions were given for the king that Israel might have in the future. He was to write a copy of the Law for himself and read in it every day. (17:18-20) Each time Israel went out to battle, the priests were to admonish the people to faith and courage and to assure them of victory, for Jehovah their God was marching with them. (20:1-4) When they should enter the Promised Land, they were to divide the tribes into two groups, with one group on Mount Ebal and the other on Mount Gerizim, and then they were to have God’s Law read to them.—27:11-26; compare Jos 8:33-35.

Love Highlighted. Love, kindness, and consideration are also highlighted in Deuteronomy. The word “love” itself, either as a noun or as a form of the verb, occurs more than five times as often in Deuteronomy as in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers combined. Here we also have the greatest commandment, to which Jesus referred (Mt 22:36, 37), uniquely stated: “You must love Jehovah your God with all your heart and all your soul and all your vital force.” (De 6:5; see also 10:12; 11:13.) Jehovah repeatedly expresses his love for Israel. (7:7-9; 23:5; 33:3) The very tone of Deuteronomy highlights Jehovah’s love for his people: “If only they would develop this heart of theirs to fear me and to keep all my commandments always, in order that it might go well with them and their sons to time indefinite!” (5:29) In fact, we find such expressions as “that it may go well with you” and “that you may keep alive” time and again in Deuteronomy.—4:40; 5:16; 6:3; 22:7; 30:19, 20.

Even though warfare was ahead of Israel in taking the land, Jehovah did not overlook loving consideration. Victory was not so important or urgent that ruthless demands were to be made. An engaged man was exempt. (De 20:7) Exemption was made for a newly married man, so that he could cherish his wife and she have her husband for at least a full year. (24:5) If a man planted a vineyard and had not eaten the fruit of it or built a house and had not inaugurated it, he was excused from warfare so that he might enjoy the fruits of his labors.—20:5, 6.

Explicit details were given with respect to waging war and taking the land of Canaan. The fearful were to be sent home, lest they make the hearts of their brothers also weak. (De 20:8) The cities of the specified nations of Canaan whose wickedness had come to the full were to be devoted to destruction without fail, but the cities not of these specified nations were to be given the alternative of surrender or destruction. If they surrendered, they were to be put to forced labor, but the Law required that even slaves be treated with kindness, and its commandments protected the women from being molested even in cities taken in war. In cases of cities that refused to surrender, all the males were put to death, only the little children and the women who had not had relations with men being spared. (20:10-18; compare Nu 31:17, 18.) In building siegeworks around a city, the Israelites were not permitted to cut down fruit trees.—De 20:19, 20.

Animals were also given loving consideration in the book of Deuteronomy. The Israelites were prohibited from taking a bird sitting on a nest, for it was the protective instinct for her offspring that made her vulnerable. She was allowed to escape, but the young could be claimed by the Israelites for themselves. The mother was thus free to raise more young. (De 22:6, 7) The farmer was not permitted to hitch an ass with a bull, to prevent hardship on the weaker animal. (22:10) The bull was not to be muzzled while threshing the grain so that he would not be tormented with hunger while grain was so close at hand and he was exerting his energy in work to thresh it.—25:4.

In family and social life consideration was shown. The firstborn son was to receive the double portion, regardless of whether he was the son of the favorite wife or not. (De 21:15-17) Brother-in-law marriage was stated as a law for the first time, and penalties were outlined in order to give it force. (25:5-10) Honest weights and measures were mandated. (25:13-16) The value of life was stressed by the command to build a parapet around the roof of a house. (22:8) Consideration even for the wrongdoer that was to be given strokes was indicated by the Law that limited the strokes to 40. (25:1-3) All these regulations gave more detail to the Law, while also showing great consideration. At the same time there was more strictness.

Warnings and Laws. Deuteronomy is filled with warnings against false worship and unfaithfulness as well as instructions on how to deal with it so that pure worship might be preserved. The exhortation to holiness was an outstanding thing in Deuteronomy. The Israelites were admonished not to intermarry with the nations round about, because this would present a threat to pure worship and loyalty to Jehovah. (De 7:3, 4) They were warned against materialism and self-righteousness. (8:11-18; 9:4-6) Strong laws were made regarding apostasy. They were to watch themselves so that they would not turn to other gods. (11:16, 17) They were warned against false prophets. Instructions were given in two places as to how to identify a false prophet and how he should be dealt with. (13:1-5; 18:20-22) Even if a member of one’s own family should become apostate, the family was not to have pity but was to share in stoning such a one to death.—13:6-11.

Cities of Israel that turned apostate were to be devoted to destruction, and nothing was to be preserved for personal benefit by anyone. The city was never to be rebuilt. (De 13:12-17) Delinquents whose parents could not control them were to be stoned to death.—21:18-21.

Holiness and freedom from bloodguilt were emphasized by the law concerning the way to handle an unsolved murder. (De 21:1-9) Indicative of the zeal for pure worship, Deuteronomy contained regulations as to who could become a member of Jehovah’s congregation and when. No illegitimate son to the tenth generation, no Moabite or Ammonite to time indefinite, and no eunuch could be admitted. However, Egyptians and Edomites of the third generation could become members of the congregation.—23:1-8.

Deuteronomy outlines the judicial arrangement for Israel when settled in the Promised Land. It sets forth the qualifications for judges and the arrangement of courts in the city gates, with the sanctuary as the supreme court of the land, whose judgments were to be followed by all Israel.—De 16:18–17:13.

Deuteronomy emphasizes Jehovah’s position as the unique God (De 6:4), Israel’s position as his unique people (4:7, 8), and the establishment of one central place of worship (12:4-7). It foretells the one who would be raised up as a prophet like Moses and who would speak in Jehovah’s name, one to whom all must be subject.—18:18, 19.

[Box on page 619]

HIGHLIGHTS OF DEUTERONOMY

Discourses explaining portions of the Law and exhorting Israel to love and obey Jehovah in the land that they were about to enter

Written by Moses just before Israel entered the Promised Land in 1473 B.C.E.

Exhortation to remember what Jehovah has done and to serve only him (1:1–4:49)

Moses recalls the sending out of spies, the faithless and rebellious response to their report, Jehovah’s oath that that generation would die in the wilderness

Israel was not to molest the sons of Esau (descended from Jacob’s brother) or Moab and Ammon (offspring of Abraham’s nephew Lot); but Jehovah gave Israel the land held by Amorite Kings Sihon and Og, E of the Jordan

Moses begs Jehovah to let him cross the Jordan; instead, Jehovah tells him to commission and strengthen Joshua to lead the nation

Moses reminds nation of Jehovah’s burning anger regarding Baal of Peor; must not forget what they witnessed in Horeb, never make a carved image for worship; Jehovah, the only true God, exacts exclusive devotion

Admonition to love Jehovah and to obey all of his commandments (5:1–26:19)

Moses recounts giving of the Law at Horeb, restates the Ten Words, urges Israel to do just as Jehovah commanded

Must love Jehovah with all one’s heart, soul, and vital force; God’s commands to be kept constantly before them; should explain to their sons the reason for Jehovah’s regulations

Seven nations to be destroyed out of the land, along with their altars and images; no marriage alliances with them

Should not forget how God dealt with them in the wilderness so as to make them know that man lives not by bread alone but by every expression of Jehovah’s mouth

Must remember how they provoked Jehovah by making molten calf; now should fear, serve, and cling to him; keep the whole commandment

Regulations to be obeyed in Promised Land: Wipe out false religion of Canaan; worship at the place that Jehovah chooses; do not eat blood; put apostates to death; eat clean food; give tenth of produce to Jehovah; show consideration for the poor; keep annual festivals; pursue justice; shun spiritism; listen to the one Jehovah raises up as prophet; respect boundary marks; keep land clean from bloodguilt; show compassion; keep clean from sexual immorality; give the firstfruits of the land to Jehovah; prove holy to Jehovah

Blessings for obeying Jehovah, curses for disobedience (27:1–28:68)

After nation crosses the Jordan, the Law is to be written on great stones

Cursings for disobedience to be pronounced on Mount Ebal

Blessings for obedience to all of Jehovah’s commands to be pronounced on Mount Gerizim

Covenant made on Plains of Moab (29:1–30:20)

Recounts Jehovah’s care in Egypt and during Israel’s 40 years in the wilderness; warns against stubborn disobedience

Foretells Jehovah’s mercy for those repenting

Sets before them choice between life and death; urges them to choose life by loving Jehovah, listening to his voice, and sticking to him

Transfer of leadership to Joshua, and Moses’ final blessings (31:1–34:12)

Joshua is commissioned to lead Israel

Moses teaches Israel a song that will be a witness against them when they forsake Jehovah

Moses blesses the tribes of Israel, then he dies on Mount Nebo

On Worship according to the Holy Scriptures

Find article here

 

 

WORSHIP "Worship" (Proskuneo /Shachah). Different levels of meaning in scripture. (***RDB FILE. Referenced in TRINDEX***)

"Worship" - Proskuneo (Greek) - Shachah (Hebrew) The title "God" or "god" was primarily used to indicate the position of an individual and not necessarily his nature. That is why it was also applied in the Bible to godly men and faithful angels - see BOWGOD study - who have different natures but nevertheless held high positions of authority -. For example, Moses was made elohim ("God" or "god") to Pharaoh (Ex. 7:1).

Obviously Moses was not given the nature of the only true God (nor even the nature of angels); he still kept the same human nature as Pharaoh himself. But Moses, who had been in an inferior position of authority to Pharaoh, was raised by God to a superior position of authority (elohim - "a mighty one") over other men.

We are not to "worship" angels when they are acting solely in the capacity of fellow servants (or equal positions of authority) with Christian humans (Rev. 22:9), even though angels are of a higher nature than men!

"The name ['angels'] does not denote their nature but their office [position] as messengers." And, "As to their nature, they are spirits." - pp. 38, 39, Today's Dictionary of the Bible, 1982, Bethany House Publishing.

Also see p. 37, New Bible Dictionary, 2nd ed., Tyndale House Publishers, 1982; and p. 47, W. E. Vine's An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words.

And the nature of God himself is spirit - Today's Dictionary of the Bible, p. 593. Even famed trinity-defender Dr. Walter Martin tells us, "God's nature has always been declared to be that of pure spirit....(John 4:24 - Greek)." - KOTC, p. 202. Also see p. 427, New Bible Dictionary (2nd ed.) and QUAL-15.

So, in the sense of the word "nature," as used above in the trinitarian Today's Dictionary of the Bible, Jehovah, his angels, and certain Christian humans when resurrected to heaven share the same nature. That is, they are all composed of Spirit. Nevertheless, we still understand that the power, wisdom, etc. of Jehovah is infinitely greater than that of these other heavenly spirit persons. We can see, then, that one's nature does not necessarily determine his position of authority or whether he should be "worshiped."

The Greek word proskuneo (or proskyneo) is defined in the 1971 trinitarian United Bible Societies' A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament, p. 154: "[Proskuneo] worship; fall down and worship, kneel, bow low, fall at another's feet."

Even the extremely trinitarian W. E. Vine writes in his An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, p. 1247:

"PROSKUNEO ... to make obeisance, do reverence to (from pros, towards, and kuneo, to kiss), is the most frequent word rendered 'to worship'. It is used for an act of homage or reverence (a) to God ...; (b) to Christ ...; (c) to a man, Matt. 18:26." ("Obeisance," of course, shows "respect, submission, or reverence" - Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1961.)

Noted Bible scholar J. H. Thayer defines proskuneo:

"prop. to kiss the hand to (towards) one, in token of reverence ... hence in the N. T. by kneeling or prostration to do homage (to one) or make obeisance, whether in order to express respect or to make supplication. It is used a. of homage shown to men of superior rank [position] ... Rev. 3:9 .... b. of homage rendered to God and the ascended Christ, to heavenly beings [angels]" - p. 548, Thayer's Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Baker Book House Publ., 1977.

The Hebrew word most often translated "worship" is shachah, and it is usually rendered as proskuneo in the Greek Septuagint version of the Old Testament. Unger and White say of this word: "Shachah ... 'to worship, prostrate oneself, bow down.'" And, "The act of bowing down in homage done before a superior [in rank] or a ruler. Thus David 'bowed' himself [shachah] before Saul (1 Sam. 24:8). Sometimes it is a social or economic superior to whom one bows, as when Ruth 'bowed' [shachah] to the ground before Boaz (Ruth 2:10)." - Nelson's Expository Dictionary of the Old Testament, 1980, Thomas Nelson Publ., p. 482.

Perhaps the most famous Biblical Hebrew scholar of all, Gesenius, tells us in Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament, p. 813, (#7812), 'Shachah':

"(1) to prostrate oneself before anyone out of honor .... Those who used this mode of salutation fell on their knees and touched the ground with the forehead ..., and this honor was not only shown to superiors, such as kings and princes, 2 Sam. 9:8; but also to equals; Gen. 23:7."

The act described by proskuneo (or shachah) was of bowing or kneeling, and it generally indicated an act of respect and a display of one's willingness to submit to or serve another person who occupied a superior position, regardless of his nature (somewhat similar to a salute in the military today). It was done, of course, in its very highest sense to God alone, but it was also done, in a lower sense of the same word, to kings, angels, prophets, etc. That is why proskuneo is translated "prostrated himself before" at Matt. 18:26 NASB, even though the KJV uses "worship" there. Notice how other trinitarian translations render that verse (RSV and NIV for example) where a servant "worships" [proskuneo] his master. And that is why, in the account of the man blind from birth whom Jesus healed, we see that man giving proskuneo to Jesus at John 9:38. The ASV, in a footnote for John 9:38, says,

"The Greek word [proskuneo] denotes an act of reverence, whether paid to a creature, as here [Jesus], or to the Creator."

At Rev. 3:9 Jesus shows the position of authority he will give to some of his human followers when he says he will make people "worship before thy feet." - KJV. The word used there is proskuneo! The ASV again adds this footnote: "The Greek word [proskuneo] denotes an act of reverence whether paid to a creature, or the Creator."*

We can see the same thing at Is. 45:14. Here God, speaking to his faithful human followers of the last days, says: "and they [the rest of surviving mankind] ... shall fall down [shachah - 'worship'] unto thee, they shall make supplication [palal - 'pray': see The Jerusalem Bible and AT] unto thee, saying, Surely God is in thee [see IN/WITH study]; and there is none else." - KJV, ASV. - cf. Is. 49:23. Even the ancient Greek translation, the Septuagint, says at Is. 45:14 - "and they ... shall [proskuneo - 'worship'] thee and make supplication [proseuchomai - 'pray'] to thee; and there is no God beside thee." (Notice all the trinitarian-type "evidence" here that could "prove" these men are "equally God"!) - The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament, Greek and English, Zondervan Ed., 1970.

So we see that the king of Israel, for example, could receive proskuneo or shachah in his role as a representative of a higher authority (Jehovah), or he could receive it in recognition of his own earthly position of authority that God allowed him to have. For example, at 2 Sam. 14:22 Joab "worships" 'my Lord' (King David). The Hebrew word shachah translated in most places in the Bible as "worship" is here translated "did obeisance" in the RSV. In the Greek Septuagint the word used is proskuneo. So, in spite of their both sharing the same fleshly human nature, one gave the other proskuneo or shachah!

We see the same thing at 1 Kings 1:16, 31 when Bathsheba gives shachah to her husband and king, David. Not only does the Septuagint use proskuneo for these verses (3 Kings 1:16, 31 in Sept.), but at verses 21 and 31 she calls David, "The Lord of me" ("My Lord").

Angels, when acting as representatives of Jehovah and speaking his words, could properly receive proskuneo as representatives for a superior authority.

Gen. 18:2 uses shachah to describe what Abraham did to the angels (p. 37, New Bible Dictionary, 2nd ed., 1982, Tyndale House Publ.) who came to him, and what Lot did to two of those same angels (shachah) is described at Gen. 19:1. (Also see Unger and White, pp. 7 and 482.) Proskuneo is also used in these two scriptures in the Septuagint. Also see Numbers 22:31: Balaam "worshiped" (proskuneo - Sept. and shachah ["fell flat" - KJV] - Hebrew OT) the ANGEL and the angel accepted it! (Unlike Rev. 19:10 and 22:8, 9.)

"The angel of the Lord [angel of Jehovah/Yahweh], sometimes 'the angel of God' or 'my (or 'his') angel,' is represented in Scripture as a heavenly being sent by God to deal with men as his personal spokesman. In many passages he is virtually identified with God and speaks not merely in the name of God but as God in the first person singular." - New Bible Dictionary, p. 38.


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"Angel of the Lord [angel of Yahweh/Jehovah] - occurs many times in the Old Testament, where in almost every instance it means a supernatural personage to be distinguished from Jehovah ....Some feel the pre-incarnate Christ is meant." - p. 39. "Titles and Names of Jesus Christ. .... Angel of the Lord (Ex. 3:2; Judg. 13: 15-18)". - p. 624, Today's Dictionary of the Bible, Bethany House Publ., 1982.

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"Angel of the Lord. ...Christ's visible form before the incarnation." - p. 40, Smith's Bible Dictionary, Hendrickson Publ.

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"The Angel of the LORD.... Traditional Christian interpretation has held that this 'angel' was a preincarnate manifestation of Christ as God's Messenger-Servant." - footnote for Gen. 16:7 in the highly trinitarian The NIV Study Bible by Zondervan Publishing.

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"[The angel of Yahweh/Jehovah] is a heavenly being given a particular task by Yahweh, behind whom the angel's personality entirely disappears.... He is virtually a hypostatic appearance of Yahweh, the personified help of God for Israel.... Sometimes we cannot distinguish between Yahweh and his angel. When the reference is to Yahweh without regard to man, 'Yahweh' is used. Where man observes him, the expression 'the angel of Yahweh' is used. This preserves Yahweh's transcendence (e.g. Gen. 18 [Abraham "worships" angel(s) - see above]; Exod. 23:20-23). Because Yahweh's holiness could have destroyed Israel, only his angel was to go with the people." - [see 1 John 4:12; John 6:46.] - The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, Vol. 1, p. 101, Zondervan Publ., 1986.

And yet, the Israelites could, and did, say that God was with them (Josh. 1:17; 1 Sam. 10:7), that God had come (Ex. 20:20), that Jehovah was in their midst (Ex. 17:7; 29:43, 45-46), that Jehovah was leading them (Ex. 13:21) when it was Jehovah's angel (Ex. 14:19) who was actually, physically present, representing Jehovah.

So we see Abraham giving shachah to the Angel of Jehovah (as the direct, perfect representative of Yahweh) and the two other angels who accompany him. The Angel of Jehovah stays with Abraham (who calls him "Jehovah" since he is perfectly speaking God's thoughts to Abraham - possibly like speaking into a telephone while speaking to someone who isn't actually physically present) while the two angels approach Lot, who gives them shachah also.

Proskuneo is given to a person who (1) represents someone else in a position of higher authority or (2) occupies a position of higher authority himself (e.g., a king). Sometimes, of course, we may find a person who may receive shachah/proskuneo for both of these reasons. 1 Chron. 29:20 tells us, "And all the assembly blessed Jehovah, the God of their fathers, and bowed down their heads and worshipped [shachah] Jehovah and the king [David]." - ASV - cf. Septuagint (proskuneo). The highest position of authority, of course, is that occupied by God (the Father, Jehovah, who alone is Most High - Ps. 83:18 - and who alone deserves worship [in the most high sense of that word].)

So, in the respect that the highest authority deserves absolute, exclusive devotion, loyalty, etc., we can see that He alone deserves exclusive proskuneo - in the highest sense. And yet, as we have seen, proskuneo, in a subordinate sense, is sometimes delivered to His representatives and to those He has placed in authority.

That proskuneo is not given to someone merely because he has a higher nature is also shown at Rev. 22:8, 9. Speaking on his own behalf as a creature with a higher nature, the angel stops John from rendering him proskuneo. Who would know better than John that only God deserves exclusive proskuneo (in the highest sense of the word)? Why would John do such a seemingly ridiculous thing? Obviously he did it because he thought the angel was acting at that moment in the capacity of the direct representative of God (see Robertson's Word Pictures, Vol. vi, p. 450) and thus should be given proskuneo! We cannot possibly believe that the Apostle John was unaware of exactly who should receive proskuneo! - -especially since he had been told, just a short time before, exactly the same thing-Rev. 19:10

No, John knew it was an angel, and knew that, unless that angel was in the role of a direct representative of God, he should not receive proskuneo in the highest sense! The only proper conclusion there can be is that at Rev. 22:8 John believed the angel had now assumed the role of the direct representative of God.

Notice what the angel, a person of superior nature to John, told him: "You must not do that! [You must not offer me proskuneo even though I am an angel and of a superior nature.] I am a fellow servant with you" - Rev. 22:8, RSV. Since his position (at that moment) was the same as John's ("a fellow servant"), even though he had a higher nature, he must not be given proskuneo in its highest sense!

If someone were to give the President of the U. S. honor or proskuneo in the sense of "respect" or "submission to authority," he would not do so because of the President's substance or nature but because of his position of authority. We would not give the President's son such honor or proskuneo because of his substance or nature even though it is equal to the President's. We would not call the President's son by his father's positional title ("President") nor by his father's individual personal name ("Ronald"). (God's people throughout the Bible did not have last [family] names but only "first," or individual, personal names, e.g., Moses, John, Gabriel, Jesus, etc.) Most Americans would, however, give the President's son honor (or proskuneo in the sense of showing honor or obedience to authority) if the President gave his son a position of authority that deserved it.

We also do not give Jehovah (the only true, most High God) honor or proskuneo simply because of his superior substance or nature but because of his position and authority. As Rev. 4:11 expresses it "You are our Lord and our God, you are worthy of glory and honor and power, because you made all the universe and it was only by your will that everything was made and exists." - JB.

Jesus himself gives proskuneo to the Father alone since the Father (Jehovah) is his only superior, his God: Micah 5:4; 1 Cor. 11:3; 2 Cor. 11:31; Eph. 1:3, 17; 1 Pet. 1:3; Rev. 3:12.

Therefore, we must not give the Most High God's Son (Luke 1:32) honor or proskuneo simply because of his substance or nature (even if we should be convinced that his body is of the very same substance as the Most High God's). We must not call him by the Most High God's positional title ("The Most High God," "The Only True God," - Jn 17:1, 3), nor by God's relational title ("The Father" - Matt. 23:9; Is. 64:8, ASV), nor by his Father's individual personal name ("Jehovah" or "Yahweh" - Ps 110:1; Is. 63:16; Micah 5:4, ASV).

We do give the Most High God's Son honor and proskuneo (whether you translate it "worship," "obeisance," etc.) because his Father has given him a position of authority that deserves it! "thou [Father] gavest [Jesus] authority over all flesh" - John 17:2 - ASV. (Also see Luke 1:32) And "there is no authority except from God" - Ro. 13:1 - RSV. (cf. 1 Cor. 15:24-28 NIV)

"The God" is the Father alone, Jehovah, who deserves our exclusive proskuneo in the highest sense! Since, in English, we usually reserve the word "worship" to translate proskuneo when it refers to God alone, it would be more appropriate to use "obeisance" for the occurrences of proskuneo when applied to other individuals in its lower sense. Nevertheless, we must be aware that proskuneo (and shachah) are applied to God, angels, and certain men in the Bible.

The trinitarian A Dictionary of the Bible, James Hastings, Vol. 4, p. 943, says the following about worship in the New Testament:

"Christian worship in NT times is usually offered to God as Father through Jesus Christ as His Son (see Ro. 1:8, Eph. 1:3; 3:14). The Aramaic 'Abba' ['Father'] appears to have been adopted as the peculiar title for God in the Churches (see Ro. 8:15)."

This trinitarian work, not unexpectedly, goes on to suggest that worship may have also been offered to Christ, but

"some indefiniteness attaches to this subject, partly owing to the two senses in which the Gr[eek] word [proskuneo] is used, and partly owing to the ambiguous usage of the title ['Lord']."

It further admits that although some trinitarians insist such scriptures as Mt 2:11; 8:2; 9:18; 14:33; 15:25; 17:14,15; 20:20 28:9,17; Lk 7:37,38; 17:15,16; 24:51,52; Jn 9:35-38; 20:17 prove that Jesus was 'worshiped,'

"it cannot be proved that in any of these cases ... more than an act of homage and humble obeisance is intended."

So this respected trinitarian reference work admits that the Father is definitely (and most often) given the exclusive worship that is due God alone, but that there are uncertainties that such is really the case with Jesus.

There is actually only one instance where, at first glance, we might think that Jesus is probably being worshiped in the highest sense of the word. But in reality it turns out to be just as ambiguous and dubious as the rest.

At Heb. 1:6 the KJV (and many other trinitarian translations) says: "And again, when he [the Father] bringeth in the first begotten [Jesus] into the world, he saith, And let all the angels of God worship [proskuneo] him."

However, when we look up this scripture in the Old Testament (the trinitarian New Oxford Annotated Bible; New American Standard Bible [Ref. ed.]; and Dr. W. F. Beck [Lutheran] in his New Testament in the Language of Today [1964] all refer Heb. 1:6 to Deut. 32:43), we find that Deut. 32:43 does not refer to the Father bringing his firstborn Son into the world and, in fact, in the Septuagint, instructs the angels to worship God (Jehovah, the Father) with no reference to Christ or the Son whatsoever.

So there is the distinct possibility that Heb. 1:6 is saying that all the angels worship the Father at that time. But even if the writer of Hebrews is saying the angels "worship" [proskuneo] the Son, it certainly doesn't have to mean "worship" in the highest sense. Even these trinitarian translations admit as much in their renderings of Heb. 1:6 - The New English Bible; Revised English Bible; New Jerusalem Bible; An American Translation, Smith-Goodspeed; Young's Literal Translation of the Holy Bible; The Letter to the Hebrews - The Daily Study Bible Series, Dr. William Barclay.

We have, then, a few doubtful references to the "worship" of Jesus (and no references to the worship of the "equally God" Holy Spirit) as compared to many certain commands to worship Jehovah, the Father!

Let's examine the scriptures where Jesus himself clearly spells it out for us. At John 17:1, 3 Jesus in his final prayer to God says: "Father ... this is eternal life: to know thee, who alone art truly God, and Jesus Christ whom thou hast sent." - NEB. This is certainly clear enough. Jesus tells us there are two things we must know if we hope to even get on the road that leads to eternal life (Matt. 7:13,14).

(1) We must know Jesus Christ. We must know his name and exactly who he is. We mustn't "know" that Moses or David or the Holy Spirit, etc. are equally the Messiah. We must know that Jesus alone is the Messiah (that he is not even part of a multiple, or 3-in-one, Messiah)! We must also know much more, of course, including that Jesus is our savior and king and what he teaches us.

(2) We must know the only true God. We must know his qualities and his commandments for us. We must know his name and exactly who he is. And Jesus has positively identified this only true God whom we must know: "Father...this is eternal life: to know thee who alone art truly God. - NEB" (also see TC study, "Unitized Title" - 1 Cor. 8:5,6)

There is no mention of the Son being known as "the only true God" or the Holy Spirit being known as "the only true God." What a terrible slighting of the only true God (if he were truly three-in-one)! Instead Jesus insists that we must know the Father is alone truly God. [See 'True' - The Only True God"]



This very same knowledge of true worship has been clearly taught by all Jews from Moses to Jesus (and up to today): God is Jehovah alone (Deut. 6:4; Ps. 83:18; Is. 44:6; 45:22) and Jehovah is the Father (never the Son or the Holy Spirit) - Is. 63:16; 64:8; Deut. 32:6. Archeology, history, and Scripture tell us undeniably that the faithful Jews never had any other God than the Father alone! - (see the ISRAEL study.) To know God is to know that the Father (Jehovah) is God alone - for the Jews and for Jesus.

There was another group of people who worshiped Jehovah. They hated the Jews, and the Jews hated them, but they worshiped Jehovah. However, these people, the Samaritans, did not really know the one they claimed to worship.

"... when the foreign peoples were brought in to dwell in Samaria, they brought their own gods with them (2 Kings 17:29). We are told a priest from Bethel came and told them how they should fear the Lord [Jehovah] (2 Kings 17:28). But all the probablity is that they merely added Jehovah to their list of gods because they were superstitiously afraid to leave him out. After all he was the God of the land in which they were living and it might be dangerous not to include him in their worship." - p. 169, The Gospel of John, Vol. 1, The Daily Study Bible Series, William Barclay, The Westminster Press, 1975 ed. (Also Hastings' A Dictionary of the Bible, p. 376, Vol. 4, 1988 printing, Hendrickson.)

So let's examine the only scripture where Jesus expressly teaches what true worship is. At John 4:9 Jesus has met a Samaritan woman and she quickly recognizes him as a Jew. At John 4:19 the Samaritan woman acknowledges that he is a prophet. Then she says, "Our fathers worshiped on this mountain; and you [Jews] say that in Jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship." She is assuming that she is worshiping the only true God but is questioning the place where that worship should be done. Jesus, however, tells her it doesn't matter where you worship God but how. What matters is that you worship the only God in truth.

At John 4:22-24 Jesus says to the Samaritan woman: "You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know, for salvation is from the Jews. [Remember, the faithful Jews have always worshiped the Father alone, Jehovah, as the only true God.] But the hour is coming, and now is, when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth, for such the Father seeks to worship him. God is spirit, and those who worship him must [dei] worship him in spirit and truth." - RSV.

Who did Jesus say really did know the true God? The Jews! And whom did the Jews know as the true God? The Father alone! (See the ISRAEL study.) Why didn't the Samaritans really know God? Because they worshiped others in addition to the Father! When speaking of worshiping in truth whom did Jesus say must be worshiped as God? The Father! (If God were truly three persons, surely Jesus would have stressed this "true" worship at this time: "Now is the hour when the true worshipers - unlike the Samaritans - will worship the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit in spirit and truth.")

And Jesus (as he also did at John 17:1, 3 above) tells us in plain language exactly who we must worship in truth as God: "But the hour...now is, when the true worshipers will worship the Father..." The Samaritan woman didn't mention the Father - she was talking about where true worship should be done. It was Jesus himself who identified the God of true worship: the Father.

How terrible (if the trinity were really true) that Jesus when speaking of the false worship of the Samaritans who do not know God (although they worshiped the Father along with others) and giving us the knowledge of the true worship of God would completely ignore "God the Son" and "God the Holy Spirit"! Isn't it clear from a careful examination of John 4:22-24 alone that the Father alone is the only true God? (John 17:1, 3; 1 Cor. 8:6) And that we must worship (proskuneo) him alone in the highest sense of the word? As noted trinitarian scholar A. T. Robertson says when discussing John 4:23 - "It does matter whether we have a true conception of God whom we worship." - p. 67, Word Pictures in the New Testament, Vol. 5.