Modern medicine v. Darwin.

LSU Ophthalmologist Commends a "Design Approach" in Appraising Supposedly Vestigial Organs
Ann Gauger


Sometimes when our worldview is wrong, we miss important things. The Darwinian point of view in particular may lead to false assumptions. A doctor, Alan B. Richards, who teaches at the Health Sciences Center at Louisiana State University, writes to us with an example. He describes a part of the eye that many consider to be vestigial, that is, an evolutionary holdover from the past that now supposedly serves no function. He points out that viewing the tissue in question as vestigial can lead to serious mistakes. Because it actually serves a purpose, surgeons who are ignorant of that purpose can inadvertently cause damage.

Writes Dr. Richards:

Here are a couple of observations from the world of medicine regarding the dangers of a purely Darwinist approach.

I have read several sources about the plica semilunaris in the eye, and even among intelligent design advocates, no one seems to explain this misunderstood part of the body.

I am a pediatric ophthalmologist and I teach residents how to perform eye muscle surgery. The plica semilunaris is the curvilinear pinkish tissue in each person's eye nasally. According to neo-Darwinian advocates, the tissue is a useless holdover from evolution, a vestigial tissue of the nictitating membrane in other mammals. Residents, who are generally a bright bunch, routinely quote this "truth" to me each year. Thus, residents tend to be careless with this tissue unless taught properly.

When performing surgery for esotropia ("crossed eyes"), one must be very careful with the plica semilunaris. The tissue can easily be improperly attached too far temporally, as at the end of surgery the plica looks much like the normal conjunctiva that covers the eye (plica is modified conjunctiva).

I explain to the residents that the plica is needed to allow the eye to move outward or temporally, and sewing the plica in the wrong location can not only result in a dreadful red appearance to the eye, but the eye can be drawn inward.

In the first few years of my practice, I saw an unfortunate Vietnamese gentleman, who had immigrated to the USA during the upheaval in Southeast Asia ("boat people"). He had a benign growth on the nasal portion of his eyes (a pterygium). The operation to remove this lesion is usually straightforward, but whoever performed his surgery neglected the plica and sewed the plica semilunaris too far temporally, resulting in very crossed eyes and double vision. Understandable upset, I had to perform eye muscle surgery (strabismus surgery) to restore his vision to normal.

Since the residents may not consider me an authority on the subject of ocular anatomy, I give this this quote from Dr. Darlene A. Dartt, Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Harvard Medical School in Duane's Clinical Ophthalmology, a well respected standard text on all aspects of ophthalmology, the first comprehensive ophthalmology text in the USA. (Thomas Duane, the editor, was chairman of ophthalmology at Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia, where I trained, the second-ranked ophthalmology program in the USA. Also, he was a former chairman of the American Medical Association's ophthalmology section and edited two standard reference works, Clinical Ophthalmology and The Biomedical Foundations of Ophthalmology.)

These words are from Chapter 2, "The Conjunctiva-Structure and Function":

The plica semilunaris is a crescent-shaped fold of conjunctiva that is situated medially and conjoins the bulbar conjunctiva with the caruncle and lacrimal portion of the eyelids (Fig. 3). It is located in the superior fornix at the junction of extending downward, surrounding the limbus to end in the inferior fornix. It extends 3 to 6 mm laterally from the caruncle. The nictitating membrane present in some animals is the counterpart to the plica, and is a partial or complete third eyelid. Although humans do not have a nictitating membrane, occasionally smooth muscle fibers may be present that are innervated with sympathetic nerves. Goblet cells are present in the plica either singly or in clusters. In humans, the plica functions as the opposite of a fornix; that is, if the conjunctiva were to directly join the eyelids to the globe, the globe and eyelids would both be restricted in movement. The fornix provides for a fold of conjunctiva that may be extended or retracted as the globe moves. Extension occurs because of fibrous slips that connect the fornix to its extra ocular rectus muscle. As the muscle contracts, the globe rotates and the adjacent conjunctiva is retracted. This occurs above, laterally, and below the globe, but not medially, which would not allow the lacrimal puncta to drain the lacrimal lake. On abduction the plica tends to unfold and flatten, whereas on adduction it is drawn posteriorly and is unfolded by the fibrous slips that extend to the plica and caruncle from the medial rectus. While it never completely unfolds, extreme adduction of the plica causes it to form a true fornix. As this occurs, a small movement of the globe occurs as a result of the retraction of the medial canthal tendon. This keeps the lacrimal puncta properly positioned with the lacrimal lake. The puncta now dips into the lacrimal strip to allow continuous drainage despite the position of the globe. In addition, the plica helps to maintain the lacrimal lake in its proper position and location in the puncta.

The bold type and underlining are my emphasis: properly the nictitating membrane is the counterpart or analog to the plica; calling the plica vestigial ignores its function. (How does one prove an organ has no function, without very, very careful study?) While the plica is not as important as some other portions of the eye (e.g., the retina, the optic nerve), the structure still serves an important function.

Thus, a design approach (whether or not one accepts common ancestry, directed theistic evolution (highly recommend "Evolution of Living Organisms" by Pierre-P Grasse), or sudden or progressive creation) results in clearer thinking than the approach that man is a result of random accidents and full of useless organs.

Alan B. Richards, MD
Clinical Assistant Professor
LSU Health Sciences Center
Shreveport, LA

Assuming non-function, or in this case, vestigiality, seems to be the default position of neo-Darwinism. When a biological structure seems useless, or it seems to be broken, and yet it appears to be derived from a similar structure in other organisms, the leap is made to say that the thing under study is evolutionary detritus that has not been completely removed by natural selection.

We have seen this viewpoint before. Junk DNA and pseudogenes, for example, have been considered to be evolutionary leftovers that are non-functional. You can even see the assumption in the names these genetic elements were given. But as time goes on, more and more functions are being discovered for junk DNA and pseudogenes.


The intelligent design intuition, in contrast, is to assume function, that things are there for a purpose, and are not merely some evolutionary holdover. I wonder how many "functionless" things like the plica semilunaris will be found to have function after all, once we begin to look more carefully using a design perspective.

The big deal re:The Royal society's peek under darwinism's hood

Why the Royal Society Meeting Mattered, in a Nutshell

Evolution News & Views

We devoted considerable attention to last month's Royal Society meeting in London. Otherwise, the three-day conference on "New Trends in Evolutionary Biology" was kept rather quiet in the media.

Oh, there were a few reports. Writing for the Huffington Post, science journalist Suzan Mazur complained of a lack of momentousness: "[J]ust what was the point of attracting a distinguished international gathering if the speakers had little new science to present? Why waste everyone's time and money?" On the other hand, a write-up in The Atlantic by Carl Zimmer acknowledged a sense of strain between rival claques of evolutionists: "Both sides offered their arguments and critiques in a civil way, but sometimes you could sense the tension in the room -- the punctuations of tsk-tsks, eye-rolling, and partisan bursts of applause."

Mild drama notwithstanding, why should anyone care about this meeting?

Despite the muffled coverage, the meeting was still significant in a number of ways. First, remember that the Royal Society is arguably the world's most august scientific body. Its founders included Robert Boyle and it was later headed for 24 years (1703-1727) by Isaac Newton -- a fact that is hard to forget when they have his death mask on prominent display in a glass case. Portraits of Boyle and Newton on the walls look down from above. The historical connections lent a certain weight by themselves to the proceedings.

That such a thoroughly mainstream scientific organization should now at last acknowledge problems with the received neo-Darwinian theory of evolution is also obviously notable. Indeed, from our point of view, though presenters ignored, dismissed, or mocked ID, not realizing the number of design-friendly scientists in the audience, the proceedings confirmed something ID advocates, including Stephen Meyer and others, have been saying for years.

Consider, for example, Meyer's provocative claim in the Prologue to Darwin's Doubt:

The technical literature in biology is now replete with world-class biologists routinely expressing doubts about various aspects of neo-Darwinian theory, and especially about its central tenet, namely the alleged creative power of the natural selection and mutation mechanism.

Nevertheless, popular defenses of the theory continue apace, rarely if ever acknowledging the growing body of critical scientific opinion about the standing of the theory. Rarely has there been such a great disparity between the popular perception of a theory and its actual standing in the relevant peer-reviewed science literature.

The opening presentation at the Royal Society conference by one of those world-class biologists, Austrian evolutionary theorist Gerd Müller, underscored exactly Meyer's point. Müller opened the meeting by discussing several of the fundamental "explanatory deficits" of "the modern synthesis," that is, textbook neo-Darwinian theory. (Discovery Institute's Paul Nelson recounted Müller's remarks here, on which in part we base the following.) According to Müller, the as yet unsolved problems include those of explaining:

Phenotypic complexity (the origin of eyes, ears, body plans, i.e., the anatomical and structural features of livings);

Phenotypic novelty, i.e., the origin of new forms throughout the history of life (for example, the mammalian radiation some 66 million years ago, in which the major orders of mammals, such as cetaceans, bats, carnivores, enter the fossil record, or even more dramatically, the Cambrian explosion, with most animal body plans appearing more or less without antecedents); and finally

Non-gradual forms or modes of transition, where you see abrupt discontinuities in the fossil record between different types.

As Müller has explained in previously published work (with Stuart Newman), although "the neo-Darwinian paradigm still represents the central explanatory framework of evolution, as represented by recent textbooks" it "has no theory of the generative."1 In other words, the neo-Darwinian mechanism of mutation and natural selection lacks the creative power to generate the novel anatomical traits and forms of life that have arisen during the history of life. Yet, as Müller noted, neo-Darwinian theory continues to be presented to the public via textbooks as the canonical understanding of how new living forms arose -- reflecting precisely the tension between the perceived, and actual, status of the theory that Meyer described in Darwin's Doubt.

Yet, the most important lesson of the Royal Society conference lies not in its vindication of claims that our scientists have made, gratifying as that might be to us, but rather in defining the current problems and state of research in the field. The conference did an excellent job of defining the problems that evolutionary theory has failed to solve, but it offered little, if anything, by way of new solutions to those longstanding fundamental problems.

Much of the conference subsequent to Müller's talk did discuss various other proposed evolutionary mechanisms. Indeed, the prime movers in the Royal Society event, Müller, along with James Shapiro, Denis Noble, and Eva Jablonka -- the "Third Way of Evolution" crowd -- have proposed repairing the explanatory deficits of the modern synthesis by highlighting evolutionary mechanisms other than random mutation and natural selection. Much debate at the conference centered around the question of whether these new mechanisms could be incorporated into the basic population genetics framework of neo-Darwinism, thus making possible a new "extended" evolutionary synthesis, or whether the emphasis on new mechanisms of evolutionary change represented a radical, and theoretically incommensurable, break with established theory. This largely semantic, or classificatory, issue obscured a deeper question that few, if any, of the presentations confronted head on: the issue of the origin of genuine phenotypic novelty -- the problem that Müller described in his opening talk.

Indeed, by the end of Day 3 of the meeting, it seemed clear to many of our scientists, and others in attendance with whom they talked, that the puzzle of life's novelties remained unsolved -- if, indeed, it had been addressed at all. As a prominent German paleontologist in the crowd concluded, "All elements of the Extended Synthesis [as discussed at the conference] fail to offer adequate explanations for the crucial explanatory deficits of the Modern Synthesis (aka neo-Darwinism) that were explicitly highlighted in the first talk of the meeting by Gerd Müller."

In Darwin's Doubt, for example, Meyer emphasized the obvious importance of genetic and other (i.e., epigenetic) types of information to building novel phenotypic traits and forms life. The new mechanisms offered by the critics of neo-Darwinism at the conference -- whether treated as part of an extended neo-Darwinian synthesis or as the basis of a fundamentally new theory of evolution -- did not attempt to explain how the information necessary to generating genuine novelty might have arisen. Instead, the mechanisms that were discussed produce at best minor microevolutionary changes, such as changes in wing coloration of butterflies or the celebrated polymorphisms of stickleback fish.

Moreover, the mechanisms that were discussed -- niche construction, phenotypic plasticity, natural genetic engineering, and so on -- either presupposed the prior existence of the biological information necessary to generate novelty, or they did not address the mystery of the origin of that information (and morphological novelty) at all. (Not all the mechanisms addressed were necessarily new, by the way. Niche construction and phenotypic plasticity have been around for a long time.)

Complex behaviors such as nest-building by birds, or dam construction by beavers, represent examples of niche construction in which some organisms themselves demonstrate the capacity to alter their environment in ways that may affect the adaptation of subsequent generations to the environment. Yet no advocate of niche construction at the meeting explained how the capacity for such complex behaviors arose de novo in ancestral populations, as they must have done if the naturalistic evolutionary story is true.

Rather, these complex behaviors were taken as givens, leaving the critical question of their origins more or less untouched. While there is abundant evidence that animals can learn and transmit new behaviors to their offspring -- crows in Japan, for instance, have learned how to use automobile traffic to crack open nuts -- all such evidence presupposes the prior existence of specific functional capacities enabling observation, learning, and the like. The evolutionary accounts of niche construction theory therefore collide repeatedly with a brick wall marked "ORIGINAL COMPLEX FUNCTIONAL CAPACITY REQUIRED HERE" -- without, or beyond which, there would simply be nothing interesting to observe.

Jim Shapiro's talk, clearly one of the most interesting of the conference, highlighted this difficulty in its most fundamental form. Shapiro presented fascinating evidence showing, contra neo-Darwinism, the non-random nature of many mutational processes -- processes that allow organisms to respond to various environmental challenges or stresses. The evidence he presented suggests that many organisms possess a kind of pre-programmed adaptive capacity -- a capacity that Shapiro has elsewhere described as operating under "algorithmic control." Yet, neither Shapiro, nor anyone else at the conference, attempted to explain how the information inherent in such algorithmic control or pre-programmed capacity might have originated.

This same "explanatory deficiency" was evident in the discussions of the other mechanisms, though we won't attempt to demonstrate that exhaustively here. We would direct readers, however, to Chapters 15 and 16 of Darwin's Doubt, where Meyer highlighted the way in which, not just neo-Darwinism, but also newer evolutionary mechanisms, including many discussed at the conference, fail to solve the question of the origin of information necessary to generate novelty. In those chapters, he reviewed a range of proposed fixes to the Modern Synthesis. He acknowledged and described the various advantages that many of these proposals have over neo-Darwinism, but also carefully explained why each of these mechanisms falls short as an explanation for the origin of the biological information necessary to build novel structures and forms of animal life. He quoted paleontologist Graham Budd who has observed: "When the public thinks about evolution, they think about [things like] the origin of wings....But these are things that evolutionary theory has told us little about."

Many fascinating talks at the Royal Society conference described a number of evolutionary mechanisms that have been given short shrift by the neo-Darwinian establishment. Unfortunately, however, the conference will be remembered, as Susan Mazar intimated in her coverage, for its failure to offer anything new. In particular, in our judgment, it failed to offer anything new that could help remedy the main "explanatory deficit" of the neo-Darwinian synthesis -- its inability to account for the origin of phenotypic novelty and especially, the genetic and epigenetic information necessary to produce it. These are still problems that evolutionary theory tells us little about.

Notes:

(1) Gerd Müller and Stuart Newman, On the Origin of Organismal Form (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), p.7.

On the Nobel committee's design filter.

Behe: Nobel Prize for Chemistry Begs the Question of Intelligent Design

David Klinghoffer

The 2016 Nobel Prize for Chemistry recognized the intelligent design (what else would you call it?) of artificial molecular machines. These "nano" machines are impressive as technical achievements. Yet they are also exceedingly simple, "cute" but "useless," as  Nature reported that "some chemists" say. "We need to convince [researchers] that these molecules are really exciting," as one scientist remarked.

Writing at CNSNews , Discovery Institute biochemist Michael Behe makes the point that Darwin advocates don't want to hear. If scientists need to be "convinced" that nano machines are "exciting" and useful, the same is surely not true when it comes to the molecular machines familiar to biologists. That's the nanotechnolgy that make continuing existence possible for chemists, Nobel Laureates, and every living creature on the planet:

Many of the pioneers of the [nanotechnology] field drew inspiration from molecular machines discovered in biology such as the bacterial flagellum, a whip-like outboard motor that can propel bacteria through liquid. Yet the molecular machines laboriously constructed by our brightest scientists are Tinkertoys compared to the nanotechnology found in living cells. That may change -- with the expenditure of much effort and brain power the chemists' machines may be improved in the future. But right at this very moment sophisticated molecular robot walkers à la Star Wars are transporting critical supplies from one part of your cells to others along molecular highways, guided by information posted on molecular signposts. Molecular solar panels that put our best technology to shame are found in every leaf. Molecular computer control systems run the whole show with a reliability that exceeds that of, say, a nuclear reactor. What's more, unlike the artificial molecular machines that were painstakingly assembled by chemists, cellular molecular machines assemble themselves. As an astonished science writer once put it: "The cell's macromolecular machines contain dozens or even hundreds of components. But unlike man-made machines, which are built on assembly lines, these cellular machines assemble spontaneously from their protein and nucleic-acid components. It is as though cars could be manufactured by merely tumbling their parts onto the factory floor." Now those are smart materials!

No one needs to labor to convince anybody that  kinesins  (walking transport proteins) are useful. It sounds like he's headed in a dangerous direction:

Here's a question that'll get you into trouble in a lot of places for asking it out loud: if brilliant scientists can manage to make only toy molecular machines, what does it take to make the sophisticated machinery of the cell? For the past several decades I and others have been arguing that the ultra-sophisticated systems at the foundation of life powerfully bespeak purposeful design -- and for the same reason that the much simpler machines made by Nobel prize winners do: it takes intelligence and planning to arrange multiple parts into a working machine.

Yeah, smart guy, but billions of years!

Critics retort that, given billions of years and the whole world to work with, Darwin's mechanism of random mutation and natural selection could do the job. But there's no good reason to think so. The best, most recent laboratory and field evolution experiments show that random mutation most often breaks or damages genes that already exist and, counterintuitively, that sometimes helps a species survive. Needless to say, a process which most often breaks genes isn't going to build much of anything.

What are you, Behe, some sort of creationist?

Another common objection I hear is that the conclusion that the molecular foundation of life was purposely designed has religious implications. But so what? Science is supposed to be a search for truth based on our best understanding of nature. Science isn't supposed to shy away from a conclusion just because it doesn't fit some people's philosophical preconceptions.

The sophisticated design of living nanotechnology exceeds by light years that of human nano-inventions. Yet evolutionists deny that the former offers scientific evidence of intelligent direction, even as the latter, child's play by comparison, obviously do. For reference, see the debate I highlighted yesterday on protein evolution between  Doug Axe and Keith Fox.

Dr. Behe's own work in illuminating the evidence for intelligent design is the subject of a new hour-long documentary,  Revolutionary: Michael Behe and the Mystery of Molecular Machines. It's available now on DVD or Blu-ray.

More waving away of evidence of design.

Evolving Protein-Protein Binding -- Not a Problem?

Cornelius Hunter 

Dennis Venema is a Fellow of Biology with BioLogos, where he writes a series of posts called "Letters to the Duchess" -- an allusion to Galileo's "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina." In the past, I have looked at Professor Venema's articles on evidences for common descent (see here

 , 

 here

,

 here

 , 

 here

, 

 here

, and 

 here

).

In a recent  online discussion 

 with Venema, he made the erroneous claim that the mammalian immune system, with its search for, and production of, antibodies, is a good example of why evolving protein-protein binding sequences is not a problem. In fact the mammalian immune system is yet another enormous problem for the theory of evolution.

The mammalian immune system is not a good example because it is designed for this job of creating protein-protein binding sequences. It searches a well-defined design space extremely rapidly, and measures the success of its search experiments accurately and quickly. The fact that our immune system successfully designs antibodies in short order does nothing to address the problem of how random mutations occurring throughout the genome are supposed to have found myriad binding sequences, crucial for life. Venema also referred to another example that he has written about. Unfortunately this example also fails to demonstrate Venema's claim of "evolution producing a new protein-protein binding event."

The problem with evolving protein-protein binding is that too much gene sequence complexity is required to achieve the needed binding affinity. You could say it is an "all-or-none" type of problem.

One or two mutations will not generally do the job -- you usually need more mutations before the two proteins stick together very well. And stick together they must, on a massive scale, in order to perform their necessary tasks. Even the simplest, unicellular, organisms contain massive protein machines, consisting of dozens of different proteins binding together to perform crucial life functions.

The study Venema referred to did a beautiful job in confirming this "all-or-none" character of protein-protein binding sequences. The study showed that in order for a viral protein to perform a relatively simple switch from one protein to a very similar protein required four types of mutations. Anything less and no dice.

The twist in this study was that subsets of the four mutation types were apparently useful for a different function (strengthening the binding affinity to the original protein). So while in general the evolution of protein-protein binding sequences is astronomically difficult because too many simultaneous mutations are required, in this case the four mutation types could be accumulated, with useful benefit realized at some of the intermediate steps.

This is not a general result. It is not a revolutionary new finding that reverses our understanding of protein-protein binding sequences.

It confirms our knowledge, and adds a fascinating outlier case where the "all-or-none" character is circumvented by intermediate functions that fortuitously "push" the design in the right direction. As the study explains:

The "all-or-none" epistasis among the four canonical phage mutations implies that it would have been unlikely for the new function to evolve on the scale of our experiments, except for the lucky fact that some of the mutations were beneficial to the phage in performing their current function, thereby pushing evolution toward the new function.

The study provides no indication that the untold thousands upon thousands of protein-protein binding problems in molecular biology would enjoy this type of setup. And if they did, oh what a suspicious sign of design that would be.

Venema is mistaken in his attempt to recruit this study as a solution to the evolution of protein-protein binding sequences. Strangely, not only had Michael Behe provided his explanation of the study, but Venema was aware of it at the time of his writing. Venema explained that in his next article he would address Behe's explanation, but in fact Venema simply rehashed Behe's original explanation for why protein-protein binding is a problem for evolution. Venema did not address Behe's explanation but simply concluded that Behe's original explanation must be false because, after all, this new study demonstrates the evolution of just such protein-protein binding sequences.

This is an unfortunate misuse of a study that most readers will not understand. Venema has force-fitted the study into an evolutionary proof.

Additional Problems

In addition to the basic problem of serendipity, this confirmation of the "all-or-none" character of protein-protein binding sequences was possible only with a very contrived, designed, laboratory experiment. Simply put, a virus population was provided with a willing and well-fed host to live off. In the meantime, many more host targets awaited the virus population. So a few mutations helped the viruses infect the initial hosts, and mere single additional mutation then allowed the viruses to infect the second group of hosts.

It was, again, an entirely artificial, laboratory environment, that wasn't even intended to replicate a realistic evolutionary environment. Venema nowhere explained this.

Second, the study also discovered even more serendipity. Not only were there "luckily" intermediate fitness benefits, but the finding of the four mutations types also required certain mutations in the host genome. Without them, no dice.

Finally, it is worth noting that across the many different virus populations used in the experiment, the virus protein in question did not incur any synonymous mutations. The study attempted to explain this as a sign of selection:

First, all 248 independent mutations in the 51 sequenced J alleles were nonsynonymous, whereas the expected ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous changes is 3.19:1 under the null model for the ancestral J sequence. This great excess is evident even if we include only the 82 nonsynonymous mutations in the 24 isolates that did not evolve the new receptor function.

This is suspicious. According to evolutionary theory, a lack of selection will be manifest in relatively few nonsynonymous mutations. So the ratio of normalized nonsynonymous mutations-to-normalized synonymous mutations (the so-called Ka/Ks ratio) will be less than unity. On the other hand, strong selection will be manifest in relatively many nonsynonymous mutations. So the Ka/Ks ratio will be greater than unity.

A high Ka/Ks ratio, and hence an inference of strong selection, should be due to relatively many nonsynonymous mutations. In this study, however, it is in the synonymous mutations where the surprise comes. There were zero. In other words, the Ka/Ks ratio is infinity. To pass this off simply as a sign of strong selection is not good science, even within the normal science of evolutionary theory.

It's irreducible complexity all the way down II

Newfound Genetic Code-in-Code Regulates Stress Response
Evolution News & Views 

There are 64 combinations in the genetic code (43), because there are four bases arranged in threes. Each triplet codon codes for one amino acid, of which there are 20 normally used in proteins. This mismatch of 64 versus 20 has been called degeneracy, and has long been a mystery. Some amino acids have a single codon, but others can be coded by up to six codons. Is this redundancy just a "frozen accident," as Francis Crick thought? Could there be functional reasons why a gene would specify one codon instead of another?

In the past, we examined growing evidence for function in the degeneracy. Last year we learned that different codons work at different rates, providing a "speed limit" mechanism for protein formation. In 2014, Casey Luskin wrote about how differing codons provide the cell with "translational pausing" that affects folding rates with phenotypic effects. The prior year, we saw that alternate codons have effects on circadian rhythms. In 2011, contributor Jonathan M. discussed additional evidences of fine-tuning in the mismatch. As Luskin said, "The theory of intelligent design predicts that living organisms will be rich in information, and thus it encourages us to seek out new sources of functionally important information in the genome."

Now we have another fulfillment of that prediction. Research at MIT has found a "Newly discovered genetic code [that] controls bacterial survival during infections" (emphasis added). This code-in-a-code makes use of the redundant codons for signaling bacteria to switch on their stress response strategy: "to enter a dormancy-like state that allows them to survive in hostile environments when deprived of oxygen or nutrients." The team led by Peter Dedon, a professor of biological engineering at MIT, found this out by working with Mycobacterium bovis.

Basically, the codons affect their corresponding transfer-RNAs (tRNA) in different ways. Notice first how complex the transfer RNA system is:

Once a tRNA molecule is manufactured, it is altered with dozens of different chemical modifications. These modifications are believed to influence how tightly the tRNA anticodon binds to the mRNA codon at the ribosome.
In this study, Dedon and colleagues found that certain tRNA modifications went up dramatically when the bacteria were deprived of oxygen and stopped growing.

Experimenting on the bacterium's response to anoxic conditions, the researchers wondered if alternate codons made a difference. They knew that "the amino acid threonine can be encoded by ACU, ACC, ACA, or ACG," so they went hunting for possible connections to the stress response.

One of these modifications was found on the ACG threonine anticodon, so the researchers analyzed the entire genome of Mycobacterium bovis in search of genes that contain high percentages of that ACG codon compared to the other threonine codons. They found that genes with high levels of ACG included a family known as the DosR regulon, which consists of 48 genes that are needed for a cells [sic] to stop growing and survive in a dormancy-like state.
When oxygen is lacking, these bacterial cells begin churning out large quantities of the DosR regulon proteins, while production of proteins from genes containing one of the other codons for threonine drops. The DosR regulon proteins guide the cell into a dormancy-like state by shutting down cell metabolism and halting cell division.

Here, then, is powerful evidence for different effects when the same amino acid is encoded by an alternate codon. The work by Dedon's team is published in Nature Communications, an open-access journal.

Apparently the ACG codon affects the "wobble" of its corresponding tRNA and how tightly the amino acid is bound. This, in turn, affects the translation efficiency in the ribosome, thus regulating the dosages of protein products. They began to see a method in the madness of degeneracy, evident in the phrase "coordinated system":

Codon re-engineering of dosR exaggerates hypoxia-induced changes in codon-biased DosR translation, with altered dosR expression revealing unanticipated effects on bacterial survival during hypoxia. These results reveal a coordinated system of tRNA modifications and translation of codon-biased transcripts that enhance expression of stress response proteins in mycobacteria.
In the conclusion, they elaborate on this coordinated system, stating that it represents another genetic code:

There is emerging speculation for the existence of a 'code of codons' based on gene-specific codon usage patterns that can regulate translation. Among possible mechanisms linking environmental changes to codon-biased translation, recent studies have shown that the dozens of modified ribonucleosides in tRNA form a dynamic system that responds to cellular stress. We have shown that stress-specific alterations in tRNA wobble modifications, which can expand or limit tRNA decoding capabilities, facilitate decoding of cognate codons that are over- or under-used in mRNAs, which enhances translational elongation and leads to the selective up- and downregulation of the codon-biased genes.
The news report from MIT doesn't hesitate to call this a "newly discovered genetic code" or "alternate genetic code" with functional significance, constituting "another layer of control, mediated by transfer RNA, that helps cells to rapidly divert resources in emergency situations." Another biochemist comments on the significance of the discovery:

"The authors present an impressive example of the new, emerging deep biology of transfer RNAs, which translate the genetic code in all living organisms to create proteins," says Paul Schimmel, a professor of cell and molecular biology at the Scripps Research Institute, who was not involved in the research. "This long-known function was viewed in a simple, straightforward way for decades. They present a powerful, comprehensive analysis to show there are layers and layers, ever deeper, to this function of translation."
That's right out of intelligent design's list of predictions. As powerful as the evidence was for design in the genetic code's translation mechanism mediated by tRNA, it wasn't powerful enough. Now scientists are beginning to view "layers and layers, ever deeper" in its sophistication. "It is really an alternative genetic code, in which any gene family that is required to change a cell phenotype is enriched with specific codons," Dedon says. And he believes this is not an isolated case. "The researchers have also seen this phenomenon in other species ... and they are now studying it in humans."

Interested in other recent papers with design implications? Check these out:

Boris Zinshteyn and Rachel Green, writing for Science, think about "When Stop Makes Sense." They investigate why, contra the "standard" genetic code, "stop codons" sometimes specify amino acids. "The answers to this puzzle," they say, "may provide insights into translation termination and gene regulation in all eukaryotes."


Sandra Wolin, writing in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, investigates RNA modification enzymes that act as chaperones, helping tRNAs fold into the proper shape. "Because nucleotide modifications can also stabilize RNA structure and influence folding pathways," she says, "it will be both exciting and challenging to tease out the relative contributions of each function and the ways in which the two roles intersect and reinforce each other."

The Father(i.e Jehovah) is the only true God according to scripture.

The Only True God:

Who is the one true God? How does this God portray Himself with respect to His identity? Does He portray Himself as a one person individual? How is he portrayed by others who are inspired by the Holy Spirit of God? Is this God a three person God or the one person Father of Israel and Jesus? What is this God's relationship to Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit? Precisely who is YAHWEH God and who is not?

YHVH your God who goes before you will Himself fight on your behalf, just as He did for you in Egypt before your eyes, and in the wilderness where you saw how YHVH your God has borne you, just as a man bears his son, in all the way which you have gone until you came to this place.' (Deuteronomy 1:31).

To you it was shown, that you might know that YHVH is God and there is no other besides Him. (Deuteronomy 4:35).

Hear, O Israel: YHVH our God, YHVH is One. (Deuteronomy 6:4).

Do you thus repay YHVH, O foolish and unwise people? Is not He your Father who has bought you? (Deuteronomy 32:6).

[YHVH]: He will cry to Me, 'You are My Father, My God, and the Rock of my salvation.' (Psalm 89:26).

YHVH says to my Lord: "Sit at My right hand until I make Your enemies a footstool for Your feet." (Psalm 110:1).

[YHVH]:Behold, My Servant, whom I uphold; My Chosen One in whom My soul delights. I have put My Spirit upon him; he will bring forth justice to the nations. (Isaiah 42:1).

Behold, My Servant whom I have chosen, My beloved with whom My soul is well pleased. I will put My Spirit upon him, and he shall proclaim justice to the nations. (Matthew 12:18).

After being baptized, Jesus came up immediately from the water; and behold, the heavens were opened, and he saw the Spirit of God descending as a dove and lighting on Him, and behold, a voice out of the heavens said, "This is My beloved Son, in whom I am well-pleased.(Matthew 3:16-17)

The Spirit of Lord YHVH is upon me. (Isaiah 61:1).

The Spirit of the Lord is upon me. (Luke 4:18; see 3:22).

O YHVH, You are our Father, we are the clay, and You our potter and all of us are the work of Your hand. (Isaiah 64:8)

And he (Christ) will arise and Shepherd his flock in the strength of YHVH, in the majesty of the name of the YHVH his God. (Micah 5:4; see 5:2).

Have we not all One Father? Has not One God created us? (Malachi 2:10).

He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High.... And the angel said to her, "The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God." (Luke 1:35).

For God so loved the world that He gave His only-begotten Son. (John 3:16).

But the hour is coming, and now is, when true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth, for such the Father seeks to worship him. God is spirit, and those who worship Him must worship in Spirit and truth." (John 4:23-24).

Jesus returned to Galilee in the power of the Spirit. (Luke 4:14; cf. 4:1).

But if I cast out demons by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of God has come upon you. (Matthew 12:28).

But beware of men, for they will hand you over to the courts and scourge you in their synagogues; and you will even be brought before governors and kings for My sake, as a testimony to them and to the Gentiles. But when they hand you over, do not worry about how or what you are to say; for it will be given you in that hour what you are to say. For it is not you who speak, but it is the Spirit of your Father who speaks in you. (Matthew 10:20).

Do not grieve the Holy Spirit of God. (Ephesians 4:30).

When they bring you before the synagogues and the rulers and the authorities, do not worry about how or what you are to speak in your defense, or what you are to say; for the Holy Spirit will teach you in that very hour what you ought to say. (Luke 12:11-12). If you then, being evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask Him? (Luke 11:13).

You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God. (Matthew 16:17).

I know that you do not have the love of God in you. I have come in the name of My Father, and you do not receive me. If another comes in his own name, him you will receive. How can you believe, who receive glory from one another, and do not seek the glory that comes from the Only God? Do not think that I shall accuse you to the Father.(John 5:43-44).

Believe in God; believe also into me. In my the house of my Father are many rooms. If it were not so, would I have told you that I go to prepare a place for you? And when I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again and will take you to myself, that where I am you may be also. And you know the way where I am going." Thomas said to him, "Lord, we do not know where you are going; how can we know the way?" Jesus said to him, "I am the Way, and the Truth, and the Life; no one comes to the Father, but by me. (John 14:1).

Father.... that they know You the Only True God, and Jesus Christ whom You have sent. (John 17:3).

My God, My God, why have you forsaken me. (Matthew 27:46).

I am ascending to My Father and your Father, to My God and your God. (John 20:17).

Being therefore exalted at the right hand of God, and having received from the Father the promise of the Holy Spirit.... Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly that God has made this Jesus whom you crucified both Lord and Christ. (Acts 2:32 36).

(YHWH) the God of Abraham, and of Isaac, and of Jacob, the God of our fathers, has glorified His servant-son Jesus. (Acts 3:13).

Now may the God who gives perseverance and encouragement grant you to be of the same mind with one another according to Christ Jesus, so that with one accord you may with one voice glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. (Romans 15:5-6).

There is no God but one... For us there is One God, the Father, out of whom are all things and we to him, and one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and we through him." (1 Corinthians 8:6).

The Head of Christ is God. (1 Corinthians 11:3).

Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of mercies and God of all comfort who comforts us in all our affliction, so that we may be able to comfort those who are in any affliction, with the comfort with which we ourselves are comforted by God. (2 Corinthians 1:3-4).

The God and Father of our Lord Jesus. (2 Corinthians 11:31).

For he was crucified in weakness, but lives by the power of God (2 Corinthians 13:4).

Blessed [be] the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. (Ephesians 1:3).

We give thanks to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" (Colossians 1:3).

The God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory" (Ephesians 1:17).

[There is] One God and Father of all, who is above all, and through all, and in you all." (Ephesians 4:6).

For they themselves report concerning us what a welcome we had among you, and how you turned to God from idols, to serve a Living and True God, and to wait for His Son from heaven, whom He raised from the dead, Jesus who delivers us from the wrath to come (1 Thessalonians 1:9-10).

To the King of ages, immortal, invisible, the only God, be honor and glory for ever and ever. Amen. (1 Timothy 1:17).

For there is One God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus. (1 Timothy 2:5).

I charge you to keep the commandment unstained and irreproachable until the appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ and this will be made manifest at the proper time by the Blessed and Only Supreme Power, the King of kings and Lord of lords, who alone has immortality and dwells in unapproachable light, whom no man has ever seen or can see. (1 Timothy 6:14-16).

[God to Jesus]: You have loved righteousness and hated lawlessness; Therefore God, your God, has anointed you with the oil of gladness more than your companions" (Hebrews 1:9).

So also Christ did not exalt himself to be made a High Priest, but was appointed by Him who said to him, "You are My Son, today I have begotten you." As He says also in another place, "You are a Priest for ever, after the order of Melchizedek." In the days of his flesh, Jesus offered up prayers and supplications, with loud cries and tears, to Him Who was able to save him from death, and he was heard for his godly fear. Although he was a Son, he learned obedience through what he suffered; and being made perfect he became the source of eternal salvation to all who obey him, being designated by God a High Priest after the order of Melchizedek. (Hebrews 5:5-10).

Blessed [be] the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" (1 Peter 1:3).

We know that the Son of God has come and has given us understanding, to know Him Who is True and we are in Him Who is True, in His Son Jesus Christ. This is the True God and eternal life. (1 John 5:20).

Now to Him who is able to keep you from stumbling, and to make you stand in the presence of His glory blameless with great joy, to the only God our Savior, through Jesus Christ our Lord, be glory, majesty, dominion and authority, before all time and now and forever. Amen. (Jude 1:25).

[Jesus] has made us kings and priests to his God and Father." (Revelation 1:6).

He who conquers, I will make him a pillar in the temple of my God. Never shall he go out of it, and I will write on him the name of my God, and the name of the city of my God, the new Jerusalem which comes down from my God out of heaven, and my own new name. " (Rev 3:12).

He who overcomes will inherit these things, and I will be his God and he will be My son. (Revelation 21:7).

On the plutocracy.

Career politicians more to blame for financial crisis than bankers?:Pros and cons.

A clash of Titans XXXVIII

Genghis Khan on trial.

File under "Well said" XLIII

It has become appallingly obvious that our technology has exceeded our humanity.
Albert Einstein

Why Jehovah's servants doubt that Christ was ever part of the yuletide festivities:The Watchtower Society's commentary.

What Does the Bible Say About Christmas?
The Bible’s answer

The Bible does not give the date of Jesus’ birth, nor does it say that we should celebrate his birthday. As McClintock and Strong’s Cyclopedia states: “The observance of Christmas is not of divine appointment, nor is it of NT [New Testament] origin.”

Instead, an examination of the history of Christmas exposes its roots in pagan religious rites. The Bible shows that we offend God if we try to worship him in a way that he does not approve of.—Exodus 32:5-7.

History of Christmas customs

Celebrating Jesus’ birthday: “The early Christians did not celebrate [Jesus’] birth because they considered the celebration of anyone’s birth to be a pagan custom.”—The World Book Encyclopedia.

December 25: There is no proof that Jesus was born on that date. Church leaders likely chose this date to coincide with pagan festivals held on or around the winter solstice.

Gift-giving, feasting, partying: The Encyclopedia Americana says: “Saturnalia, a Roman feast celebrated in mid-December, provided the model for many of the merry-making customs of Christmas. From this celebration, for example, were derived the elaborate feasting, the giving of gifts, and the burning of candles.” The Encyclopædia Britannica notes that “all work and business were suspended” during Saturnalia.

Christmas lights: According to The Encyclopedia of Religion, Europeans decorated their homes “with lights and evergreens of all kinds” to celebrate the winter solstice and to combat evil spirits.

Mistletoe, holly: “The Druids ascribed magical properties to the mistletoe in particular. The evergreen holly was worshiped as a promise of the sun’s return.”—The Encyclopedia Americana.

Christmas tree: “Tree worship, common among the pagan Europeans, survived after their conversion to Christianity.” One of the ways in which tree worship survived is in the custom of “placing a Yule tree at an entrance or inside the house in the midwinter holidays.”—Encyclopædia Britannica.

OR From history.com:

AN ANCIENT HOLIDAY:The middle of winter has long been a time of celebration around the world. Centuries before the arrival of the man called Jesus, early Europeans celebrated light and birth in the darkest days of winter. Many peoples rejoiced during the winter solstice, when the worst of the winter was behind them and they could look forward to longer days and extended hours of sunlight.

In Scandinavia, the Norse celebrated Yule from December 21, the winter solstice, through January. In recognition of the return of the sun, fathers and sons would bring home large logs, which they would set on fire. The people would feast until the log burned out, which could take as many as 12 days. The Norse believed that each spark from the fire represented a new pig or calf that would be born during the coming year.

The end of December was a perfect time for celebration in most areas of Europe. At that time of year, most cattle were slaughtered so they would not have to be fed during the winter. For many, it was the only time of year when they had a supply of fresh meat. In addition, most wine and beer made during the year was finally fermented and ready for drinking.

In Germany, people honored the pagan god Oden during the mid-winter holiday. Germans were terrified of Oden, as they believed he made nocturnal flights through the sky to observe his people, and then decide who would prosper or perish. Because of his presence, many people chose to stay inside.

SATURNALIA:In Rome, where winters were not as harsh as those in the far north, Saturnalia—a holiday in honor of Saturn, the god of agriculture—was celebrated. Beginning in the week leading up to the winter solstice and continuing for a full month, Saturnalia was a hedonistic time, when food and drink were plentiful and the normal Roman social order was turned upside down. For a month, slaves would become masters. Peasants were in command of the city. Business and schools were closed so that everyone could join in the fun.

Also around the time of the winter solstice, Romans observed Juvenalia, a feast honoring the children of Rome. In addition, members of the upper classes often celebrated the birthday of Mithra, the god of the unconquerable sun, on December 25. It was believed that Mithra, an infant god, was born of a rock. For some Romans, Mithra’s birthday was the most sacred day of the year.

In the early years of Christianity, Easter was the main holiday; the birth of Jesus was not celebrated. In the fourth century, church officials decided to institute the birth of Jesus as a holiday. Unfortunately, the Bible does not mention date for his birth (a fact Puritans later pointed out in order to deny the legitimacy of the celebration). Although some evidence suggests that his birth may have occurred in the spring (why would shepherds be herding in the middle of winter?), Pope Julius I chose December 25. It is commonly believed that the church chose this date in an effort to adopt and absorb the traditions of the pagan Saturnalia festival. First called the Feast of the Nativity, the custom spread to Egypt by 432 and to England by the end of the sixth century. By the end of the eighth century, the celebration of Christmas had spread all the way to Scandinavia. Today, in the Greek and Russian orthodox churches, Christmas is celebrated 13 days after the 25th, which is also referred to as the Epiphany or Three Kings Day. This is the day it is believed that the three wise men finally found Jesus in the manger.

By holding Christmas at the same time as traditional winter solstice festivals, church leaders increased the chances that Christmas would be popularly embraced, but gave up the ability to dictate how it was celebrated. By the Middle Ages, Christianity had, for the most part, replaced pagan religion. On Christmas, believers attended church, then celebrated raucously in a drunken, carnival-like atmosphere similar to today’s Mardi Gras. Each year, a beggar or student would be crowned the “lord of misrule” and eager celebrants played the part of his subjects. The poor would go to the houses of the rich and demand their best food and drink. If owners failed to comply, their visitors would most likely terrorize them with mischief. Christmas became the time of year when the upper classes could repay their real or imagined “debt” to society by entertaining less fortunate citizens.

On unhyping A.I

Accross the globe;The fourth horseman rides on.

Boko Haram overtakes ISIS as world's deadliest terror group, report says
By Katie Pisa and Tim Hume, CNN
Updated 1330 GMT (2130 HKT) November 19, 2015

(CNN)With its reign of terror in the Middle East, its claim to have brought down a Russian passenger jet and now, the atrocities in Paris, ISIS has commanded global headlines as the world's most dangerous terror group.

But another militant Islamist organization overtook ISIS to become the world's deadliest terrorist group last year, according to a new report.

Boko Haram, the Islamic extremist group based mainly in Nigeria's northern states, was responsible for 6,644 deaths in 2014, an increase of 317% from the previous year, according to the Global Terrorism Index, released Tuesday.

By contrast, ISIS, the terror group to which Boko Haram reportedly pledged allegiance in March of this year, was responsible for 6,073 deaths.

Between them, the two groups were responsible for more than half (51%) the deaths attributed to terrorism, in the deadliest year on record for terror, according to the report.

Internationally, deaths from terrorism experienced a "dramatic rise" in 2014, increasing by 80% from the previous year, according to the study by the Institute for Economics and Peace.

There were 32,658 people killed in terrorist attacks last year -- nine times more victims than there were in 2000, it says.

School kidnappings, market bombings
Boko Haram, whose name means "Western education is forbidden" in the local Hausa dialect, gained international notoriety for its raids on schools, in which hundreds of girls have been kidnapped.

An estimated 276 teenage girls were snatched from a boarding school in Chibok in Nigeria's Borno state in April of last year, sparking the #bringbackourgirls campaign on social media.

The group -- whose elusive leader, Abubakar Shekau, has a $7 million U.S. government bounty on his head -- has also pursued a ruthless campaign of bombing marketplaces throughout Nigeria.

The country was rocked by two such blasts within 24 hours this week, with at least 31 people killed Tuesday in the northeastern city of Yola, according to a local Red Cross official, and 15 killed in Kano, about 400 miles (645 kilometers) to the northwest, according to police.


Boko Haram's campaign of terror, combined with the rise of Fulani militants operating in the country's central belt, has led to Nigeria experiencing the biggest year-on-year increase of deaths from terrorism ever recorded, with 7,512 fatalities in 2014, up more than 300% since the previous year.

Fulani militants, hailing from a pastoralist ethnic group engaged in conflict with farming communities, were responsible for 1,229 deaths last year, making them the world's fourth deadliest terror group, according to the report.

Where is terror happening?
Iraq continues to be the country most impacted by terrorism, with 9,929 terrorist fatalities last year, the highest ever recorded in a single country, according to the report.

Terrorist attacks went up by 80% in 2014, though 78% of them were in five countries.
Terrorist attacks went up by 80% in 2014, though 78% of them were in five countries.
The next most affected countries were Nigeria, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Syria. Nearly four-fifths -- 78% -- of deaths from terrorism occurred in these countries, according to the report, although terrorism was spreading, with more countries recording attacks and deaths than previously.

The number of countries experiencing more than 500 terrorism deaths increased from five to 11 in 2013. The six new countries on the list are Somalia, Ukraine, Yemen, the Central African Republic, South Sudan and Cameroon. The report adds that Ukraine entered the list because of the downing of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 by a missile in a rebel-controlled area in the east of the country, killing all 289 people on board.

Most deaths from terrorism are not taking place in the West. Excluding the 9/11 attacks, since 2000, only 0.5% of deaths from terrorism have occurred on Western soil.

Of the attacks that did take place in the West, "lone wolf" attackers are the main perpetrators, causing 70% of all deaths since 2006.

How do we stop 'lone wolf' attacks?

The majority of "lone wolf" attackers are a mixture of political extremists, nationalists, racial, religious and white supremacists and, to a lesser degree, Islamic fundamentalists.

Economic impact

The report, which was compiled using data from the University of Maryland, says the global economic cost of terrorism last year reached an all-time high of $52.9 billion.

This cost was 61% higher than 2013, when the economic cost of terrorism reached $32.9 billion, and over a tenfold increase since 2000. The vast majority of the costs stem from injury and death.

"Terrorist activity is a significant driver of forced migration," the report says. "Ten of the 11 countries most affected by terrorism also have the highest rates of refugees and internal displacement. This highlights the strong connection between the current refugee crisis, terrorism and conflict."

What is driving terrorism?
Political violence and conflict are the two factors most closely linked to terrorism.

Between 1989 and 2014, 92% of all terrorist attacks took place in countries where state-funded political violence was widespread.

Scope of ISIS threat grows in France

Scope of ISIS threat grows in France 02:32
Drivers of terrorism differ, however. In developed countries, socioeconomic factors such as lack of opportunity and low social cohesion are significantly linked to terrorism. In less-developed countries, internal conflicts, political factors and corruption are strongly linked to terrorism.

Since there are clear sociopolitical factors that foster terrorism, it is important to implement policies addressing these associated causes, said Steve Killelea, founder of the Institute for Economics and Peace. "This includes reducing state-sponsored violence, defusing group grievances, and improving respect for human rights and religious freedoms, while considering cultural nuances," wrote Killelea.

The rise of ISIS has been significant. The flow of foreign fighters into Iraq and Syria since 2011 is the largest influx in modern times, with current estimates now ranging from 25,000 to 30,000 fighters from 100 countries. This flow of foreign fighters does not appear to be diminishing, the report says, with over 7,000 arriving in the first six months of 2015 alone.

Homicides are still deadlier
While terrorism is undoubtedly a major concern for safety and security, the report also highlights the fact that global homicide accounts for more deaths annually than terrorism.

Paris attack survivor: Felt like the worst horror film

Paris attack survivor: Felt like the worst horror film 05:52
The global homicide rate is 13 times the global terrorism rate, with 437,000 people dying from homicides, compared with 32,658 from terrorism in 2014.

The deadliest city in the world for terrorism is Baghdad. There were 2,454 deaths in Baghdad in 2014, with a death rate from terrorism of 43 per 100,000 people.

Many cities in the world have higher homicide rates than the highest terrorist rates. Caracas, for example, holds the highest homicide rate in the world at 111 per 100,000 for the decade starting in 2000.