Monday 19 October 2015
The fossil record continues to play rough.
Fossil of world's earliest modern bird could help us understand the extinction of dinosaurs
May 7, 2015 by Gareth Dyke, The Conversation
Fossils of the oldest member of the lineage to which today's birds belong has been found in Hebei province of Northern China. The discovery pushes back the evolutionary record for birds by nearly 6m years and challenges the traditional view of bird evolution. The fossils may one day help solve the puzzle of why dinosaurs that weren't related to birds were wiped out as a result of mass extinction.
Archaeornithura is now the oldest-known example of Ornithuromorpha, a group that includes all living birds and their fossil ancestors. The two extremely well-preserved fossils are about 130m years old, from to the Mesozoic era, which extended between 252m and 66m years ago.
A challenge for evolutionary theory
We have known for a long time that birds are the living descendants of theropod dinosaurs, an evolutionary branch that can be traced back at least 140m years to the so called "first bird" Archaeopteryx (which means ancient wing). Fossils of this creature were first found in found in Jurassic-era limestones in Bavaria, Germany, in 1861.
In recent years, however, researchers have learned two important things that have challenged that narrative. First, many researchers no longer consider Archaeopteryx to be a bird at all, rather a member of a closely-related group of feathered theropod dinosaurs. In addition, new fossil discoveries, especially from China, have dramatically widened our view of the diversity of early birds.
The fossils described in the recent study, published in Nature Communications, were dug out from silt rocks just 10m years younger than those which gave us Archaeopteryx. It is extremely surprising that ornithuromorph birds had evolved and diversified to that extent in just 10m years after Archaeopteryx.
Despite being of a similar age to Archaeopteryx, Archaeornithura was a great deal more advanced. Measuring 15cm in height, it had well-developed feathers, an advanced abdominal region and wings and lacked feathers on its legs, suggesting it was a wader.
Survival of the high-flyers
The finding of Archaeornithura is important, because it may help shed light on why only the types of dinosaurs that evolved into modern birds survived the famous end-Cretaceous mass-extinction 66m years ago.
Other groups of birds, such as Enantiornithines, which often had teeth and clawed fingers, became extinct – but the branch that went on to give rise to all modern birds survived for some reason. If we could pin down when and how ornithuromorph birds evolved from their earlier ancestors and what makes them different to other, earlier birds, we might understand the reasons for the dramatic success of modern birds and why they made it while other dinosaurs died out.
A great deal more research is needed to solve the puzzle of bird evolution. Archaeornithura is not enough on its own to provide all the answers. But fossils such as this will certainly help inform the debate and assist in our search for related species. Understanding the evolution of modern birds and how they made it across one of the largest extinction events of all time is surely a major holy grail of evolutionary biology.
May 7, 2015 by Gareth Dyke, The Conversation
Fossils of the oldest member of the lineage to which today's birds belong has been found in Hebei province of Northern China. The discovery pushes back the evolutionary record for birds by nearly 6m years and challenges the traditional view of bird evolution. The fossils may one day help solve the puzzle of why dinosaurs that weren't related to birds were wiped out as a result of mass extinction.
Archaeornithura is now the oldest-known example of Ornithuromorpha, a group that includes all living birds and their fossil ancestors. The two extremely well-preserved fossils are about 130m years old, from to the Mesozoic era, which extended between 252m and 66m years ago.
A challenge for evolutionary theory
We have known for a long time that birds are the living descendants of theropod dinosaurs, an evolutionary branch that can be traced back at least 140m years to the so called "first bird" Archaeopteryx (which means ancient wing). Fossils of this creature were first found in found in Jurassic-era limestones in Bavaria, Germany, in 1861.
In recent years, however, researchers have learned two important things that have challenged that narrative. First, many researchers no longer consider Archaeopteryx to be a bird at all, rather a member of a closely-related group of feathered theropod dinosaurs. In addition, new fossil discoveries, especially from China, have dramatically widened our view of the diversity of early birds.
The fossils described in the recent study, published in Nature Communications, were dug out from silt rocks just 10m years younger than those which gave us Archaeopteryx. It is extremely surprising that ornithuromorph birds had evolved and diversified to that extent in just 10m years after Archaeopteryx.
Despite being of a similar age to Archaeopteryx, Archaeornithura was a great deal more advanced. Measuring 15cm in height, it had well-developed feathers, an advanced abdominal region and wings and lacked feathers on its legs, suggesting it was a wader.
Survival of the high-flyers
The finding of Archaeornithura is important, because it may help shed light on why only the types of dinosaurs that evolved into modern birds survived the famous end-Cretaceous mass-extinction 66m years ago.
Other groups of birds, such as Enantiornithines, which often had teeth and clawed fingers, became extinct – but the branch that went on to give rise to all modern birds survived for some reason. If we could pin down when and how ornithuromorph birds evolved from their earlier ancestors and what makes them different to other, earlier birds, we might understand the reasons for the dramatic success of modern birds and why they made it while other dinosaurs died out.
A great deal more research is needed to solve the puzzle of bird evolution. Archaeornithura is not enough on its own to provide all the answers. But fossils such as this will certainly help inform the debate and assist in our search for related species. Understanding the evolution of modern birds and how they made it across one of the largest extinction events of all time is surely a major holy grail of evolutionary biology.
on alcoholic beverages in the scriptures:The Watchtower Society's commentary.
WINE AND STRONG DRINK:
There are a number of original-language terms that usually designate some kind of wine (Heb., ti·rohshʹ [Ge 27:28, 37; Ho 2:8, 9, 22]; Heb., cheʹmer [De 32:14; Isa 27:2] and its corresponding Aramaic term chamarʹ [Da 5:1, 2, 4, 23]; as well as Gr., gleuʹkos [Ac 2:13]). But the Hebrew word yaʹyin is found most frequently in the Scriptures. It first appears in Genesis 9:20-24, where the reference is to Noah’s planting a vineyard after the Flood and then becoming intoxicated on the wine therefrom. The Greek word oiʹnos (basically corresponding to the Hebrew term yaʹyin) first occurs in Jesus’ comments on the inadvisability of using old wineskins for new, partially fermented wine, as the pressure developed through fermentation would burst the old wineskins.—Mt 9:17; Mr 2:22; Lu 5:37, 38.
Various strong alcoholic liquors, apparently derived from pomegranates, dates, figs, and the like, were usually designated by the Hebrew term she·kharʹ. (Nu 28:7; De 14:26; Ps 69:12) The Hebrew word ʽa·sisʹ, at The Song of Solomon 8:2, refers to “the fresh juice” of pomegranates, but in other passages the context points to wine. (Isa 49:26; Joe 1:5) Beer may have been designated by the Hebrew word soʹveʼ.—Isa 1:22; Na 1:10.
Wine Making. In Palestine the grapes were gathered during August and September, depending on the type of grapes and the climate of the region. The vintage season was practically over by the time “the festival of booths” was celebrated in the early part of autumn. (De 16:13) After being picked, the grapes were placed in limestone vats, or troughs, where men usually crushed them barefoot, singing songs as they trod the winepress. (Isa 16:10; Jer 25:30; 48:33) With such comparatively gentle crushing methods, the stems and seeds were not broken down, so that little of the tannic acid in the skins was expressed; this, in turn, made for a high-quality wine, one that was smooth and soft on the palate. (Ca 7:9) Sometimes heavy stones were used instead of feet.—See PRESS.
The first “must,” or fresh juice, that flows from the broken skins of the grapes, if kept separate from the greater volume of juice extracted under pressure, makes the richest and best wines. Fermentation begins within six hours after the crushing, while the juice is still in the vats, and slowly progresses for a period of several months. The alcohol content of the natural wines varies from 8 to 16 percent by volume, but this can be increased by adding alcoholic spirits later on. If grapes are low in sugar content, and fermentation continues too long, or if the wine is not properly protected from oxidizing, it turns to acetic acid, or vinegar.—Ru 2:14.
During the aging period the wine was kept in jars or skin bottles. (Jer 13:12) These containers were probably vented in such a way as to allow the carbon dioxide gas (a by-product in the conversion of the sugars to alcohol through fermentation) to escape without admitting oxygen from the air to contact and react with the wine. (Job 32:19) As the wines were left undisturbed they gradually clarified, the dregs falling to the bottom, with an improvement in the bouquet and flavor. (Lu 5:39) Thereafter wines were usually transferred to other vessels.—Isa 25:6; Jer 48:11; see DREGS.
Uses. From time immemorial wine has been used as a beverage at mealtimes. (Ge 27:25; Ec 9:7) Wine, bread, and other foods are often associated together. (1Sa 16:20; Ca 5:1; Isa 22:13; 55:1) Melchizedek set “bread and wine” before Abraham. (Ge 14:18-20) Jesus drank wine with his meals when it was available. (Mt 11:19; Lu 7:34) Wine was very much a part of banquets (Es 1:7; 5:6; 7:2, 7, 8), wedding feasts (Joh 2:2, 3, 9, 10; 4:46), and other festive occasions (1Ch 12:39, 40; Job 1:13, 18). The royal commissaries were stocked with wines (1Ch 27:27; 2Ch 11:11); it was the customary beverage of kings and governors. (Ne 2:1; 5:15, 18; Da 1:5, 8, 16) Travelers often included it in their provisions for a journey.—Jos 9:4, 13; Jg 19:19.
Its wide usage made wine a commodity of trade (Ne 13:15), “the wine of Helbon” (preferred by the kings of Persia) and “the wine of Lebanon” being particularly famous. (Eze 27:18; Ho 14:7) Wine was a medium of payment for workers employed in providing wood used in building the temple. (2Ch 2:8-10, 15) It was considered an excellent gift for one’s superiors (1Sa 25:18; 2Sa 16:1, 2) and was included in the tithing contribution given for the support of the priests and Levites. (De 18:3, 4; 2Ch 31:4, 5; Ne 10:37, 39; 13:5, 12) And wine was among the choice things offered up to Jehovah in connection with sacrificial worship of him.—Ex 29:38, 40; Le 23:13; Nu 15:5, 7, 10; 28:14; 1Sa 1:24; 10:3; Ho 9:4.
Wine was not at first a part of the Passover meal but was added later, perhaps after the return from Babylonian exile. It was therefore on the table when Jesus celebrated the Passover the last time with his apostles and was conveniently used by him in instituting the Memorial of his death. The red “blood of grapes” was a fitting representation of Jesus’ own sacrificial blood. On that occasion Jesus spoke of such wine as “this product of the vine,” and since it was perhaps seven months after the grape harvest, there can be no question but that it was fermented juice of the vine.—Ge 49:11; Mt 26:18, 27-29.
As indicated by Jesus and reported by the physician Luke, wine had certain medicinal value as an antiseptic and mild disinfectant. (Lu 10:34) The Bible also recommends it as a curative remedy in cases of certain intestinal disturbances. Paul counseled Timothy: “Do not drink water any longer, but use a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent cases of sickness.” (1Ti 5:23) This was sound medical advice. As Dr. Salvatore P. Lucia, professor of medicine, University of California School of Medicine, writes: “Wine is the most ancient dietary beverage and the most important medicinal agent in continuous use throughout the history of mankind. . . . Actually, few other substances available to man have been as widely recommended for their curative powers as have wines.”—Wine as Food and Medicine, 1954, p. 5; see DISEASES AND TREATMENT.
Contrary to the erroneous opinions of some, alcoholic liquors are not mental stimulants but are in reality sedatives and depressants of the central nervous system. “Give intoxicating liquor, you people, to the one about to perish and wine to those who are bitter of soul,” not as a mental stimulant to make such ones more conscious of their misery, but, rather, as the proverb says, that they may ‘forget their troubles.’ (Pr 31:6, 7) There was an ancient custom among the Romans of giving criminals drugged wine to blunt the pain of execution. Perhaps this is why Roman soldiers offered Jesus drugged wine when impaling him.—Mr 15:23.
It is apparent that wine is one of the gifts included among Jehovah’s blessings to mankind. Wine “makes the heart of mortal man rejoice”; it puts the heart in “a merry mood.” (Ps 104:15; Es 1:10; 2Sa 13:28; Ec 2:3; 10:19; Zec 10:7) Hence, Daniel when in mourning drank no wine. (Da 10:2, 3) An abundant supply of wine, symbolized by the “vine” in the oft-repeated expression ‘sitting under one’s own vine and fig tree,’ denotes prosperity and security under Jehovah’s righteous rule. (1Ki 4:25; 2Ki 18:31; Isa 36:16; Mic 4:4; Zec 3:10) Wine is also included in the restoration blessings promised by Jehovah.—Joe 3:18; Am 9:13, 14; Zec 9:17.
Temperate Use. Moderation in all things is a Bible principle. Even honey is no exception—in moderation it is good; used to excess, it is injurious. (Pr 25:27) So also with Jehovah’s gifts of wine and strong drink, they must be used as he directs. Overindulgence and disregard for Bible principles in the use of these provisions brings Jehovah’s disapproval and leads to debauchery and death. The Bible is very emphatic on this matter, both in its precepts and its examples.—Pr 23:29-31; see DRUNKENNESS.
There may be cases where drinking alcohol, even in small quantities, would be ill-advised and detrimental to one’s health. On other occasions one may refrain from drinking intoxicating liquor to avoid stumbling others and out of love and consideration for others.—Ro 14:21.
Jehovah forbade the priests and Levites, when on duty at the tabernacle or temple, to drink alcohol in any form, under penalty of death. (Le 10:8, 9; Eze 44:21) Off duty they were free to drink in moderation. (1Ch 9:29) So too it was a divine regulation that a Nazirite was not to drink any alcoholic beverage while under this special vow. (Nu 6:2-4, 13-20; Am 2:12) Because Samson was to be a Nazirite from birth, his mother was not allowed to touch wine or liquor during her pregnancy. (Jg 13:4, 5, 7, 14) When officiating, “it is not for kings to drink wine or for high officials to say: ‘Where is intoxicating liquor?’” lest they “forget what is decreed and pervert the cause of any of the sons of affliction.” (Pr 31:4, 5) Overseers in the Christian congregation should not be ‘drunken brawlers,’ and ministerial servants “should likewise be serious, . . . not giving themselves to a lot of wine.”—1Ti 3:3, 8.
Pictorial. Ancient Babylon, when acting as Jehovah’s executioner, made all the nations ‘drunk on wine,’ symbolic of Jehovah’s wrath against the nations. (Jer 51:7) Also, in other texts, opponents of Jehovah are depicted as being forced to drink of God’s righteous indignation, likened to “wine [that] is foaming,” “the wine of rage,” “the wine of the anger of God.” (Ps 75:8; Jer 25:15; Re 14:10; 16:19) A bitter potion that has no relationship to divine anger is “the wine of her [spiritual] fornication” that “Babylon the Great” makes all the nations drink.—Re 14:8; 17:2; 18:3, 13.
There are a number of original-language terms that usually designate some kind of wine (Heb., ti·rohshʹ [Ge 27:28, 37; Ho 2:8, 9, 22]; Heb., cheʹmer [De 32:14; Isa 27:2] and its corresponding Aramaic term chamarʹ [Da 5:1, 2, 4, 23]; as well as Gr., gleuʹkos [Ac 2:13]). But the Hebrew word yaʹyin is found most frequently in the Scriptures. It first appears in Genesis 9:20-24, where the reference is to Noah’s planting a vineyard after the Flood and then becoming intoxicated on the wine therefrom. The Greek word oiʹnos (basically corresponding to the Hebrew term yaʹyin) first occurs in Jesus’ comments on the inadvisability of using old wineskins for new, partially fermented wine, as the pressure developed through fermentation would burst the old wineskins.—Mt 9:17; Mr 2:22; Lu 5:37, 38.
Various strong alcoholic liquors, apparently derived from pomegranates, dates, figs, and the like, were usually designated by the Hebrew term she·kharʹ. (Nu 28:7; De 14:26; Ps 69:12) The Hebrew word ʽa·sisʹ, at The Song of Solomon 8:2, refers to “the fresh juice” of pomegranates, but in other passages the context points to wine. (Isa 49:26; Joe 1:5) Beer may have been designated by the Hebrew word soʹveʼ.—Isa 1:22; Na 1:10.
Wine Making. In Palestine the grapes were gathered during August and September, depending on the type of grapes and the climate of the region. The vintage season was practically over by the time “the festival of booths” was celebrated in the early part of autumn. (De 16:13) After being picked, the grapes were placed in limestone vats, or troughs, where men usually crushed them barefoot, singing songs as they trod the winepress. (Isa 16:10; Jer 25:30; 48:33) With such comparatively gentle crushing methods, the stems and seeds were not broken down, so that little of the tannic acid in the skins was expressed; this, in turn, made for a high-quality wine, one that was smooth and soft on the palate. (Ca 7:9) Sometimes heavy stones were used instead of feet.—See PRESS.
The first “must,” or fresh juice, that flows from the broken skins of the grapes, if kept separate from the greater volume of juice extracted under pressure, makes the richest and best wines. Fermentation begins within six hours after the crushing, while the juice is still in the vats, and slowly progresses for a period of several months. The alcohol content of the natural wines varies from 8 to 16 percent by volume, but this can be increased by adding alcoholic spirits later on. If grapes are low in sugar content, and fermentation continues too long, or if the wine is not properly protected from oxidizing, it turns to acetic acid, or vinegar.—Ru 2:14.
During the aging period the wine was kept in jars or skin bottles. (Jer 13:12) These containers were probably vented in such a way as to allow the carbon dioxide gas (a by-product in the conversion of the sugars to alcohol through fermentation) to escape without admitting oxygen from the air to contact and react with the wine. (Job 32:19) As the wines were left undisturbed they gradually clarified, the dregs falling to the bottom, with an improvement in the bouquet and flavor. (Lu 5:39) Thereafter wines were usually transferred to other vessels.—Isa 25:6; Jer 48:11; see DREGS.
Uses. From time immemorial wine has been used as a beverage at mealtimes. (Ge 27:25; Ec 9:7) Wine, bread, and other foods are often associated together. (1Sa 16:20; Ca 5:1; Isa 22:13; 55:1) Melchizedek set “bread and wine” before Abraham. (Ge 14:18-20) Jesus drank wine with his meals when it was available. (Mt 11:19; Lu 7:34) Wine was very much a part of banquets (Es 1:7; 5:6; 7:2, 7, 8), wedding feasts (Joh 2:2, 3, 9, 10; 4:46), and other festive occasions (1Ch 12:39, 40; Job 1:13, 18). The royal commissaries were stocked with wines (1Ch 27:27; 2Ch 11:11); it was the customary beverage of kings and governors. (Ne 2:1; 5:15, 18; Da 1:5, 8, 16) Travelers often included it in their provisions for a journey.—Jos 9:4, 13; Jg 19:19.
Its wide usage made wine a commodity of trade (Ne 13:15), “the wine of Helbon” (preferred by the kings of Persia) and “the wine of Lebanon” being particularly famous. (Eze 27:18; Ho 14:7) Wine was a medium of payment for workers employed in providing wood used in building the temple. (2Ch 2:8-10, 15) It was considered an excellent gift for one’s superiors (1Sa 25:18; 2Sa 16:1, 2) and was included in the tithing contribution given for the support of the priests and Levites. (De 18:3, 4; 2Ch 31:4, 5; Ne 10:37, 39; 13:5, 12) And wine was among the choice things offered up to Jehovah in connection with sacrificial worship of him.—Ex 29:38, 40; Le 23:13; Nu 15:5, 7, 10; 28:14; 1Sa 1:24; 10:3; Ho 9:4.
Wine was not at first a part of the Passover meal but was added later, perhaps after the return from Babylonian exile. It was therefore on the table when Jesus celebrated the Passover the last time with his apostles and was conveniently used by him in instituting the Memorial of his death. The red “blood of grapes” was a fitting representation of Jesus’ own sacrificial blood. On that occasion Jesus spoke of such wine as “this product of the vine,” and since it was perhaps seven months after the grape harvest, there can be no question but that it was fermented juice of the vine.—Ge 49:11; Mt 26:18, 27-29.
As indicated by Jesus and reported by the physician Luke, wine had certain medicinal value as an antiseptic and mild disinfectant. (Lu 10:34) The Bible also recommends it as a curative remedy in cases of certain intestinal disturbances. Paul counseled Timothy: “Do not drink water any longer, but use a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent cases of sickness.” (1Ti 5:23) This was sound medical advice. As Dr. Salvatore P. Lucia, professor of medicine, University of California School of Medicine, writes: “Wine is the most ancient dietary beverage and the most important medicinal agent in continuous use throughout the history of mankind. . . . Actually, few other substances available to man have been as widely recommended for their curative powers as have wines.”—Wine as Food and Medicine, 1954, p. 5; see DISEASES AND TREATMENT.
Contrary to the erroneous opinions of some, alcoholic liquors are not mental stimulants but are in reality sedatives and depressants of the central nervous system. “Give intoxicating liquor, you people, to the one about to perish and wine to those who are bitter of soul,” not as a mental stimulant to make such ones more conscious of their misery, but, rather, as the proverb says, that they may ‘forget their troubles.’ (Pr 31:6, 7) There was an ancient custom among the Romans of giving criminals drugged wine to blunt the pain of execution. Perhaps this is why Roman soldiers offered Jesus drugged wine when impaling him.—Mr 15:23.
It is apparent that wine is one of the gifts included among Jehovah’s blessings to mankind. Wine “makes the heart of mortal man rejoice”; it puts the heart in “a merry mood.” (Ps 104:15; Es 1:10; 2Sa 13:28; Ec 2:3; 10:19; Zec 10:7) Hence, Daniel when in mourning drank no wine. (Da 10:2, 3) An abundant supply of wine, symbolized by the “vine” in the oft-repeated expression ‘sitting under one’s own vine and fig tree,’ denotes prosperity and security under Jehovah’s righteous rule. (1Ki 4:25; 2Ki 18:31; Isa 36:16; Mic 4:4; Zec 3:10) Wine is also included in the restoration blessings promised by Jehovah.—Joe 3:18; Am 9:13, 14; Zec 9:17.
Temperate Use. Moderation in all things is a Bible principle. Even honey is no exception—in moderation it is good; used to excess, it is injurious. (Pr 25:27) So also with Jehovah’s gifts of wine and strong drink, they must be used as he directs. Overindulgence and disregard for Bible principles in the use of these provisions brings Jehovah’s disapproval and leads to debauchery and death. The Bible is very emphatic on this matter, both in its precepts and its examples.—Pr 23:29-31; see DRUNKENNESS.
There may be cases where drinking alcohol, even in small quantities, would be ill-advised and detrimental to one’s health. On other occasions one may refrain from drinking intoxicating liquor to avoid stumbling others and out of love and consideration for others.—Ro 14:21.
Jehovah forbade the priests and Levites, when on duty at the tabernacle or temple, to drink alcohol in any form, under penalty of death. (Le 10:8, 9; Eze 44:21) Off duty they were free to drink in moderation. (1Ch 9:29) So too it was a divine regulation that a Nazirite was not to drink any alcoholic beverage while under this special vow. (Nu 6:2-4, 13-20; Am 2:12) Because Samson was to be a Nazirite from birth, his mother was not allowed to touch wine or liquor during her pregnancy. (Jg 13:4, 5, 7, 14) When officiating, “it is not for kings to drink wine or for high officials to say: ‘Where is intoxicating liquor?’” lest they “forget what is decreed and pervert the cause of any of the sons of affliction.” (Pr 31:4, 5) Overseers in the Christian congregation should not be ‘drunken brawlers,’ and ministerial servants “should likewise be serious, . . . not giving themselves to a lot of wine.”—1Ti 3:3, 8.
Pictorial. Ancient Babylon, when acting as Jehovah’s executioner, made all the nations ‘drunk on wine,’ symbolic of Jehovah’s wrath against the nations. (Jer 51:7) Also, in other texts, opponents of Jehovah are depicted as being forced to drink of God’s righteous indignation, likened to “wine [that] is foaming,” “the wine of rage,” “the wine of the anger of God.” (Ps 75:8; Jer 25:15; Re 14:10; 16:19) A bitter potion that has no relationship to divine anger is “the wine of her [spiritual] fornication” that “Babylon the Great” makes all the nations drink.—Re 14:8; 17:2; 18:3, 13.
Sunday 18 October 2015
The Watchtower Society's commentary on the biblical 1st century apostles
APOSTLE:
The Greek word a·poʹsto·los is derived from the common verb a·po·stelʹlo, meaning simply “send forth (or off).” (Mt 10:5; Mr 11:3) Its basic sense is clearly illustrated in Jesus’ statement: “A slave is not greater than his master, nor is one that is sent forth [a·poʹsto·los] greater than the one that sent him.” (Joh 13:16) In this sense the word also applies to Christ Jesus as “the apostle and high priest whom we confess.” (Heb 3:1; compare Mt 10:40; 15:24; Lu 4:18, 43; 9:48; 10:16; Joh 3:17; 5:36, 38; 6:29, 57; 7:29; 8:42; 10:36; 11:42; 17:3, 8, 18, 21-25; 20:21.) Jesus was sent forth by God as his appointed and commissioned representative.
The term is principally applied, however, to those disciples whom Jesus personally selected as a body of 12 appointed representatives. The names of the original 12 selected are given at Matthew 10:2-4; Mark 3:16-19, and Luke 6:13-16. One of the original 12, Judas Iscariot, proved to be a traitor, thereby fulfilling earlier prophecies. (Ps 41:9; 109:8) The remaining 11 faithful apostles are again listed at Acts 1:13.
Some of the apostles had been disciples of John the Baptizer before becoming Jesus’ disciples. (Joh 1:35-42) Eleven of them were evidently Galileans (Ac 2:7), Judas Iscariot being considered the sole Judean. They were from the working class; four were definitely fishermen by trade; one had been a tax collector. (Mt 4:18-21; 9:9-13) At least two of them appear to have been cousins of Jesus (James and John, the sons of Zebedee). They were men who were viewed by the religious leaders as “unlettered and ordinary,” indicating that their education was elementary and not from the schools of higher learning. A number of them, including Peter (Cephas), were married men.—Ac 4:13; 1Co 9:5.
Of the 12, Peter, James, and John seem to have enjoyed the closest relationship with Jesus. They alone witnessed the resurrection of Jairus’ daughter (Mr 5:35-43) and the transfiguration of Jesus (Mt 17:1, 2), and they accompanied him farther into the garden of Gethsemane than the other apostles on the night of his arrest. (Mr 14:32, 33) A special affinity appears to have existed between Jesus and John, and John is accepted as being the one referred to as “the disciple whom Jesus used to love.”—Joh 21:20-24; 13:23.
Selection and Early Ministry. The 12 were selected out of a larger group of disciples and were designated “apostles” by Jesus, “that they might continue with him and that he might send them out [a·po·stelʹlei] to preach and to have authority to expel the demons.” (Mr 3:13-15) Thereafter they did “continue with him” in very close association during the remainder of his earthly ministry, receiving extensive personal instruction and ministerial training. (Mt 10:1-42; Lu 8:1) Since they continued to be Jesus’ pupils, they were still called “disciples,” particularly in accounts of events prior to Pentecost. (Mt 11:1; 14:26; 20:17; Joh 20:2) Thereafter they are consistently called “apostles.” At the time of their appointment, Jesus gave them miraculous powers to heal, as well as to expel demons, and they used these powers to some extent during Jesus’ ministry. (Mr 3:14, 15; 6:13; Mt 10:1-8; Lu 9:6; compare Mt 17:16.) This activity, however, is shown to be always subordinate to their principal work of preaching. Though forming an inner circle of followers, their instruction and training included no mysterious rituals or ceremonies.
Human Weaknesses. Though greatly favored as apostles of God’s Son, they manifested normal human failings and weaknesses. Peter was inclined to be rash and impetuous (Mt 16:22, 23; Joh 21:7, 8); Thomas was slow to be convinced (Joh 20:24, 25); James and John manifested youthful impatience (Lu 9:49, 54). They quarreled over the issue of their future greatness in the earthly kingdom that they expected Jesus to establish. (Mt 20:20-28; Mr 10:35-45; compare Ac 1:6; Lu 24:21.) They acknowledged their need for greater faith. (Lu 17:5; compare Mt 17:20.) Despite their years of intimate association with Jesus and though knowing him to be the Messiah, they all abandoned him at the time of his arrest (Mt 26:56); the matter of his burial was handled by others. The apostles were slow at first to accept the testimony of the women who first saw Jesus after his resurrection. (Lu 24:10, 11) Because of fear they met behind locked doors. (Joh 20:19, 26) The resurrected Jesus gave them further enlightenment, and following his ascension to heaven on the 40th day from his resurrection, they manifested great joy and “were continually in the temple blessing God.”—Lu 24:44-53.
Activity in Christian Congregation. The outpouring of God’s spirit upon them at Pentecost greatly strengthened the apostles. The first five chapters of the Acts of Apostles testify to the great fearlessness of the apostles and their boldness in declaring the good news and the resurrection of Jesus in spite of jailing, beatings, and threats of death from their rulers. During those early days after Pentecost, the dynamic leadership of the apostles, under the power of the holy spirit, resulted in amazing expansion in the Christian congregation. (Ac 2:41; 4:4) Their ministry was at first concentrated in Jerusalem, then extended to Samaria, and in time, throughout the known world.—Ac 5:42; 6:7; 8:5-17, 25; 1:8.
Their primary function as apostles was to be witnesses as to Jesus’ fulfillment of Jehovah God’s purposes and prophecies, particularly of his resurrection and exaltation, and to do a discipling work among all nations; and this commission was emphasized to them by Jesus just before his ascension to heaven. (Mt 28:19, 20; Ac 1:8, 22; 2:32-36; 3:15-26) Their testimony concerning the resurrection was that of eyewitnesses.—Ac 13:30-34.
Miraculous powers. Additionally, to fortify their testimony, the apostles continued to exercise the miraculous powers previously granted them by Jesus, and also other gifts of the spirit received from Pentecost forward. (Ac 5:12; 9:36-40; see GIFTS FROM GOD [Gifts of the Spirit].) While others, too, received such miraculous gifts of the spirit, the account shows that such was the case only when one or more of the apostles were present, or by the laying on of the hands of the apostles. Paul, though not one of the 12, also served in this way as an apostle personally appointed by Jesus Christ. (Ac 2:1, 4, 14; 8:14-18; 10:44; 19:6) Thus the power to transmit such gifts was unique with these apostles. Such miraculous gifts would therefore pass away with the passing away of these apostles and of those who had received these gifts through the apostles (1Co 13:2, 8-11), and thus we read that these powers were “missing in the 2nd-century church, the writers of those days speaking of them as a thing in the past—in the apostolic age, in fact.”—The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, edited by J. D. Douglas, 1980, Vol. 1, p. 79.
Administrative position. In the formation, organization, and subsequent direction of the Christian congregation, the apostles occupied a primary position. (1Co 12:28; Eph 4:11) Although they were joined by others of the “older men” in such supervision, they formed a principal part of the governing body of the expanding Christian congregation, and this body was recognized by the early Christians everywhere as the channel of communication used by God to render decisions and direct the affairs of the congregation throughout the earth. (Ac 2:42; 8:14-17; 11:22; 15:1, 2, 6-31; 16:4, 5) This was possible for these men only because of the fulfillment of the promises about guidance by God’s holy spirit. (Joh 15:26, 27) Such help enabled them to recall Jesus’ instructions and teachings, to clarify points of doctrine, and to be progressively guided “into all the truth” revealed through them at that apostolic period. (Joh 14:26; 16:13-15; compare Joh 2:22; 12:16.) They made appointments to positions of service within the congregation and also designated areas in which certain ones would engage in missionary activity.—Ac 6:2, 3; Ga 2:8, 9.
The apostles, therefore, served as a foundation, resting on Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone, for the building up of the “holy temple for Jehovah.” (Eph 2:20-22; 1Pe 2:4-6) There is no evidence of the primacy of any one apostle in the established Christian congregation. (See PETER.) Peter and John appear to have been especially prominent at Pentecost and immediately thereafter, with Peter acting as the principal spokesman. (Ac 2:14, 37, 38; 3:1, 4, 11; 4:1, 13, 19; 5:3, 8, 15, 29) However, in the decisions made at that time neither of these appears to have had a superiority over the others of the governing body, and when news arrived of the baptisms taking place in Samaria, the apostles in Jerusalem “dispatched [a·peʹstei·lan] Peter and John to them,” so that these two served, in effect, as apostles of the apostles. (Ac 6:2-6; 8:14, 15) Following the death of the apostle James, the disciple of the same name, James the half brother of Jesus, appears to have presided in the governing body. Paul speaks of this James and also Peter (Cephas) and John as “the ones who seemed to be pillars.” (Ac 12:1, 2, 16, 17; Ga 1:18, 19; 2:9, 11-14) It was James who announced the final decision on the important issue of circumcision as involving the Gentile believers, at which meeting Peter and Paul both presented testimony.—Ac 15:1, 2, 6-21.
Who replaced Judas Iscariot as a twelfth apostle?
Because of the defection of Judas Iscariot, who died unfaithful, there were only 11 apostles remaining, and during the 40 days from Jesus’ resurrection until his ascension to heaven he made no appointment of a replacement. Sometime during the ten days between Jesus’ ascension and the day of Pentecost it was viewed as necessary that another be selected to fill the vacancy left by Judas, not simply on the basis of his death but, rather, on the basis of his wicked defection, as the Scriptures quoted by Peter indicate. (Ac 1:15-22; Ps 69:25; 109:8; compare Re 3:11.) Thus, by contrast, when the faithful apostle James was put to death, there is no record of any concern to appoint anyone to succeed him in his position of apostle.—Ac 12:2.
It is evident from Peter’s statements that it was then considered that any individual filling the position of an apostle of Jesus Christ must have the qualifications of having been personally conversant with him, having been an eyewitness of his works, his miracles, and particularly his resurrection. In view of this it can be seen that any apostolic succession would in course of time become an impossibility, unless there were divine action to supply these requirements in each individual case. At that particular time before Pentecost, however, there were men meeting these requirements, and two were put forth as suitable for replacing unfaithful Judas. Doubtless having in mind Proverbs 16:33, lots were cast, and Matthias was selected and was thereafter “reckoned along with the eleven apostles.” (Ac 1:23-26) He is thus included among “the twelve” who settled the problem concerning the Greek-speaking disciples (Ac 6:1, 2), and evidently Paul includes him in referring to “the twelve” when speaking of Jesus’ postresurrection appearances at 1 Corinthians 15:4-8. Thus, when Pentecost arrived, there were 12 apostolic foundations on which the spiritual Israel then formed could rest.
Congregational Apostleships. Matthias was not a mere apostle of the Jerusalem congregation, any more than the remaining 11 apostles were. His case is different from that of the Levite Joseph Barnabas who became an apostle of the congregation of Antioch, Syria. (Ac 13:1-4; 14:4, 14; 1Co 9:4-6) Other men also are referred to as “apostles of congregations” in the sense that they were sent forth by such congregations to represent them. (2Co 8:23) And, in writing to the Philippians, Paul speaks of Epaphroditus as “your envoy [a·poʹsto·lon] and private servant for my need.” (Php 2:25) The apostleship of these men was clearly not by virtue of any apostolic succession, nor did they form part of “the twelve” as did Matthias.
The correct understanding of the wider application of the term “apostle” can help to clear away any apparent discrepancy between Acts 9:26, 27 and Galatians 1:17-19, when applied to the same occasion. The first account states that Paul, on arriving in Jerusalem, was led “to the apostles” by Barnabas. In the account in Galatians, however, Paul states that he visited with Peter and adds: “But I saw no one else of the apostles, only James the brother of the Lord.” James (not the original apostle James the son of Zebedee nor James the son of Alphaeus, but the half brother of Jesus) was evidently viewed as an “apostle” in the wider sense, namely, as “one sent forth” by the Jerusalem congregation. This would allow for the Acts account to use the title in the plural in saying that Paul was led “to the apostles” (that is, Peter and James).—Compare 1Co 15:5-7; Ga 2:9.
The Selection of Paul. Probably about the year 34 C.E., Saul of Tarsus was converted and is later referred to as Paul. He did become a true apostle of Jesus Christ and was the direct choice of the resurrected and ascended Jesus Christ. (Ac 9:1-22; 22:6-21; 26:12-23; 13:9) He argued on behalf of his apostleship and presented as his qualification the fact that he had seen the resurrected Lord Jesus Christ, that he had performed miracles, and that he had served as a channel for imparting the holy spirit to baptized believers. (1Co 9:1, 2; 15:9, 10; 2Co 12:12; 2Ti 1:1, 11; Ro 1:1; 11:13; Ac 19:5, 6) Since the apostle James (the brother of John) was not killed until about the year 44 C.E., “the twelve” were yet alive at the time of Paul’s becoming an apostle. He nowhere includes himself among such “twelve,” while at the same time he acknowledges no inferiority in his apostleship compared with that of such ones.—Ga 2:6-9.
Matthias’ and Paul’s apostleships were both valid for the purpose for which those men were “sent forth,” yet when the apostle John saw the vision of the heavenly New Jerusalem in the Revelation (given about 96 C.E.) he saw only 12 foundation stones and on them inscribed “the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb.” (Re 21:14) The testimony of the Holy Scriptures is clear that the apostle Paul was never referred to as one of “the twelve.” Therefore, it logically follows that one of “the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb” inscribed on the foundation stones of the New Jerusalem is that of Matthias and not that of Paul. This means that the vision of the apostle John reflects the situation that existed at the start of the Christian congregation on the day of Pentecost in the year 33 C.E.—See PAUL.
End of the Apostolic Period. Though the Bible does not relate the death of the 12 apostles, aside from that of James, the evidence available indicates that they maintained their faithfulness until death and therefore needed no replacement. Concerning history in the following centuries, the observation is made that “whenever it [the term “apostle”] is applied to individuals in later Christian literature, the use of the term is metaphorical. The church has never had apostles in the N[ew] T[estament] sense since the first century.”—The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, edited by G. A. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 1, p. 172.
During their lifetime the apostles’ presence served as a restraint upon the influences of apostasy, holding back the forces of false worship within the Christian congregation. It is evidently to this “restraint” that the apostle Paul referred at 2 Thessalonians 2:7: “True, the mystery of this lawlessness is already at work; but only till he who is right now acting as a restraint gets to be out of the way.” (Compare Mt 13:24, 25; Ac 20:29, 30.) This apostolic influence, including the authority and powers unique with them, continued until the death of John about 100 C.E. (1Jo 2:26; 3Jo 9, 10) The rapid influx of apostasy and false doctrine and practices after the death of the apostles shows that any pretended apostolic successors had none of the restraining influence of the apostles.
The reference to Andronicus and Junias at Romans 16:7 as “men of note among the apostles” indicates, not that they were apostles, but, rather, that they were held in high repute by the apostles. That some made false pretenses of being “apostles of Christ” is shown at 2 Corinthians 11:5, 13; 12:11, 12; Revelation 2:2.
The Greek word a·poʹsto·los is derived from the common verb a·po·stelʹlo, meaning simply “send forth (or off).” (Mt 10:5; Mr 11:3) Its basic sense is clearly illustrated in Jesus’ statement: “A slave is not greater than his master, nor is one that is sent forth [a·poʹsto·los] greater than the one that sent him.” (Joh 13:16) In this sense the word also applies to Christ Jesus as “the apostle and high priest whom we confess.” (Heb 3:1; compare Mt 10:40; 15:24; Lu 4:18, 43; 9:48; 10:16; Joh 3:17; 5:36, 38; 6:29, 57; 7:29; 8:42; 10:36; 11:42; 17:3, 8, 18, 21-25; 20:21.) Jesus was sent forth by God as his appointed and commissioned representative.
The term is principally applied, however, to those disciples whom Jesus personally selected as a body of 12 appointed representatives. The names of the original 12 selected are given at Matthew 10:2-4; Mark 3:16-19, and Luke 6:13-16. One of the original 12, Judas Iscariot, proved to be a traitor, thereby fulfilling earlier prophecies. (Ps 41:9; 109:8) The remaining 11 faithful apostles are again listed at Acts 1:13.
Some of the apostles had been disciples of John the Baptizer before becoming Jesus’ disciples. (Joh 1:35-42) Eleven of them were evidently Galileans (Ac 2:7), Judas Iscariot being considered the sole Judean. They were from the working class; four were definitely fishermen by trade; one had been a tax collector. (Mt 4:18-21; 9:9-13) At least two of them appear to have been cousins of Jesus (James and John, the sons of Zebedee). They were men who were viewed by the religious leaders as “unlettered and ordinary,” indicating that their education was elementary and not from the schools of higher learning. A number of them, including Peter (Cephas), were married men.—Ac 4:13; 1Co 9:5.
Of the 12, Peter, James, and John seem to have enjoyed the closest relationship with Jesus. They alone witnessed the resurrection of Jairus’ daughter (Mr 5:35-43) and the transfiguration of Jesus (Mt 17:1, 2), and they accompanied him farther into the garden of Gethsemane than the other apostles on the night of his arrest. (Mr 14:32, 33) A special affinity appears to have existed between Jesus and John, and John is accepted as being the one referred to as “the disciple whom Jesus used to love.”—Joh 21:20-24; 13:23.
Selection and Early Ministry. The 12 were selected out of a larger group of disciples and were designated “apostles” by Jesus, “that they might continue with him and that he might send them out [a·po·stelʹlei] to preach and to have authority to expel the demons.” (Mr 3:13-15) Thereafter they did “continue with him” in very close association during the remainder of his earthly ministry, receiving extensive personal instruction and ministerial training. (Mt 10:1-42; Lu 8:1) Since they continued to be Jesus’ pupils, they were still called “disciples,” particularly in accounts of events prior to Pentecost. (Mt 11:1; 14:26; 20:17; Joh 20:2) Thereafter they are consistently called “apostles.” At the time of their appointment, Jesus gave them miraculous powers to heal, as well as to expel demons, and they used these powers to some extent during Jesus’ ministry. (Mr 3:14, 15; 6:13; Mt 10:1-8; Lu 9:6; compare Mt 17:16.) This activity, however, is shown to be always subordinate to their principal work of preaching. Though forming an inner circle of followers, their instruction and training included no mysterious rituals or ceremonies.
Human Weaknesses. Though greatly favored as apostles of God’s Son, they manifested normal human failings and weaknesses. Peter was inclined to be rash and impetuous (Mt 16:22, 23; Joh 21:7, 8); Thomas was slow to be convinced (Joh 20:24, 25); James and John manifested youthful impatience (Lu 9:49, 54). They quarreled over the issue of their future greatness in the earthly kingdom that they expected Jesus to establish. (Mt 20:20-28; Mr 10:35-45; compare Ac 1:6; Lu 24:21.) They acknowledged their need for greater faith. (Lu 17:5; compare Mt 17:20.) Despite their years of intimate association with Jesus and though knowing him to be the Messiah, they all abandoned him at the time of his arrest (Mt 26:56); the matter of his burial was handled by others. The apostles were slow at first to accept the testimony of the women who first saw Jesus after his resurrection. (Lu 24:10, 11) Because of fear they met behind locked doors. (Joh 20:19, 26) The resurrected Jesus gave them further enlightenment, and following his ascension to heaven on the 40th day from his resurrection, they manifested great joy and “were continually in the temple blessing God.”—Lu 24:44-53.
Activity in Christian Congregation. The outpouring of God’s spirit upon them at Pentecost greatly strengthened the apostles. The first five chapters of the Acts of Apostles testify to the great fearlessness of the apostles and their boldness in declaring the good news and the resurrection of Jesus in spite of jailing, beatings, and threats of death from their rulers. During those early days after Pentecost, the dynamic leadership of the apostles, under the power of the holy spirit, resulted in amazing expansion in the Christian congregation. (Ac 2:41; 4:4) Their ministry was at first concentrated in Jerusalem, then extended to Samaria, and in time, throughout the known world.—Ac 5:42; 6:7; 8:5-17, 25; 1:8.
Their primary function as apostles was to be witnesses as to Jesus’ fulfillment of Jehovah God’s purposes and prophecies, particularly of his resurrection and exaltation, and to do a discipling work among all nations; and this commission was emphasized to them by Jesus just before his ascension to heaven. (Mt 28:19, 20; Ac 1:8, 22; 2:32-36; 3:15-26) Their testimony concerning the resurrection was that of eyewitnesses.—Ac 13:30-34.
Miraculous powers. Additionally, to fortify their testimony, the apostles continued to exercise the miraculous powers previously granted them by Jesus, and also other gifts of the spirit received from Pentecost forward. (Ac 5:12; 9:36-40; see GIFTS FROM GOD [Gifts of the Spirit].) While others, too, received such miraculous gifts of the spirit, the account shows that such was the case only when one or more of the apostles were present, or by the laying on of the hands of the apostles. Paul, though not one of the 12, also served in this way as an apostle personally appointed by Jesus Christ. (Ac 2:1, 4, 14; 8:14-18; 10:44; 19:6) Thus the power to transmit such gifts was unique with these apostles. Such miraculous gifts would therefore pass away with the passing away of these apostles and of those who had received these gifts through the apostles (1Co 13:2, 8-11), and thus we read that these powers were “missing in the 2nd-century church, the writers of those days speaking of them as a thing in the past—in the apostolic age, in fact.”—The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, edited by J. D. Douglas, 1980, Vol. 1, p. 79.
Administrative position. In the formation, organization, and subsequent direction of the Christian congregation, the apostles occupied a primary position. (1Co 12:28; Eph 4:11) Although they were joined by others of the “older men” in such supervision, they formed a principal part of the governing body of the expanding Christian congregation, and this body was recognized by the early Christians everywhere as the channel of communication used by God to render decisions and direct the affairs of the congregation throughout the earth. (Ac 2:42; 8:14-17; 11:22; 15:1, 2, 6-31; 16:4, 5) This was possible for these men only because of the fulfillment of the promises about guidance by God’s holy spirit. (Joh 15:26, 27) Such help enabled them to recall Jesus’ instructions and teachings, to clarify points of doctrine, and to be progressively guided “into all the truth” revealed through them at that apostolic period. (Joh 14:26; 16:13-15; compare Joh 2:22; 12:16.) They made appointments to positions of service within the congregation and also designated areas in which certain ones would engage in missionary activity.—Ac 6:2, 3; Ga 2:8, 9.
The apostles, therefore, served as a foundation, resting on Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone, for the building up of the “holy temple for Jehovah.” (Eph 2:20-22; 1Pe 2:4-6) There is no evidence of the primacy of any one apostle in the established Christian congregation. (See PETER.) Peter and John appear to have been especially prominent at Pentecost and immediately thereafter, with Peter acting as the principal spokesman. (Ac 2:14, 37, 38; 3:1, 4, 11; 4:1, 13, 19; 5:3, 8, 15, 29) However, in the decisions made at that time neither of these appears to have had a superiority over the others of the governing body, and when news arrived of the baptisms taking place in Samaria, the apostles in Jerusalem “dispatched [a·peʹstei·lan] Peter and John to them,” so that these two served, in effect, as apostles of the apostles. (Ac 6:2-6; 8:14, 15) Following the death of the apostle James, the disciple of the same name, James the half brother of Jesus, appears to have presided in the governing body. Paul speaks of this James and also Peter (Cephas) and John as “the ones who seemed to be pillars.” (Ac 12:1, 2, 16, 17; Ga 1:18, 19; 2:9, 11-14) It was James who announced the final decision on the important issue of circumcision as involving the Gentile believers, at which meeting Peter and Paul both presented testimony.—Ac 15:1, 2, 6-21.
Who replaced Judas Iscariot as a twelfth apostle?
Because of the defection of Judas Iscariot, who died unfaithful, there were only 11 apostles remaining, and during the 40 days from Jesus’ resurrection until his ascension to heaven he made no appointment of a replacement. Sometime during the ten days between Jesus’ ascension and the day of Pentecost it was viewed as necessary that another be selected to fill the vacancy left by Judas, not simply on the basis of his death but, rather, on the basis of his wicked defection, as the Scriptures quoted by Peter indicate. (Ac 1:15-22; Ps 69:25; 109:8; compare Re 3:11.) Thus, by contrast, when the faithful apostle James was put to death, there is no record of any concern to appoint anyone to succeed him in his position of apostle.—Ac 12:2.
It is evident from Peter’s statements that it was then considered that any individual filling the position of an apostle of Jesus Christ must have the qualifications of having been personally conversant with him, having been an eyewitness of his works, his miracles, and particularly his resurrection. In view of this it can be seen that any apostolic succession would in course of time become an impossibility, unless there were divine action to supply these requirements in each individual case. At that particular time before Pentecost, however, there were men meeting these requirements, and two were put forth as suitable for replacing unfaithful Judas. Doubtless having in mind Proverbs 16:33, lots were cast, and Matthias was selected and was thereafter “reckoned along with the eleven apostles.” (Ac 1:23-26) He is thus included among “the twelve” who settled the problem concerning the Greek-speaking disciples (Ac 6:1, 2), and evidently Paul includes him in referring to “the twelve” when speaking of Jesus’ postresurrection appearances at 1 Corinthians 15:4-8. Thus, when Pentecost arrived, there were 12 apostolic foundations on which the spiritual Israel then formed could rest.
Congregational Apostleships. Matthias was not a mere apostle of the Jerusalem congregation, any more than the remaining 11 apostles were. His case is different from that of the Levite Joseph Barnabas who became an apostle of the congregation of Antioch, Syria. (Ac 13:1-4; 14:4, 14; 1Co 9:4-6) Other men also are referred to as “apostles of congregations” in the sense that they were sent forth by such congregations to represent them. (2Co 8:23) And, in writing to the Philippians, Paul speaks of Epaphroditus as “your envoy [a·poʹsto·lon] and private servant for my need.” (Php 2:25) The apostleship of these men was clearly not by virtue of any apostolic succession, nor did they form part of “the twelve” as did Matthias.
The correct understanding of the wider application of the term “apostle” can help to clear away any apparent discrepancy between Acts 9:26, 27 and Galatians 1:17-19, when applied to the same occasion. The first account states that Paul, on arriving in Jerusalem, was led “to the apostles” by Barnabas. In the account in Galatians, however, Paul states that he visited with Peter and adds: “But I saw no one else of the apostles, only James the brother of the Lord.” James (not the original apostle James the son of Zebedee nor James the son of Alphaeus, but the half brother of Jesus) was evidently viewed as an “apostle” in the wider sense, namely, as “one sent forth” by the Jerusalem congregation. This would allow for the Acts account to use the title in the plural in saying that Paul was led “to the apostles” (that is, Peter and James).—Compare 1Co 15:5-7; Ga 2:9.
The Selection of Paul. Probably about the year 34 C.E., Saul of Tarsus was converted and is later referred to as Paul. He did become a true apostle of Jesus Christ and was the direct choice of the resurrected and ascended Jesus Christ. (Ac 9:1-22; 22:6-21; 26:12-23; 13:9) He argued on behalf of his apostleship and presented as his qualification the fact that he had seen the resurrected Lord Jesus Christ, that he had performed miracles, and that he had served as a channel for imparting the holy spirit to baptized believers. (1Co 9:1, 2; 15:9, 10; 2Co 12:12; 2Ti 1:1, 11; Ro 1:1; 11:13; Ac 19:5, 6) Since the apostle James (the brother of John) was not killed until about the year 44 C.E., “the twelve” were yet alive at the time of Paul’s becoming an apostle. He nowhere includes himself among such “twelve,” while at the same time he acknowledges no inferiority in his apostleship compared with that of such ones.—Ga 2:6-9.
Matthias’ and Paul’s apostleships were both valid for the purpose for which those men were “sent forth,” yet when the apostle John saw the vision of the heavenly New Jerusalem in the Revelation (given about 96 C.E.) he saw only 12 foundation stones and on them inscribed “the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb.” (Re 21:14) The testimony of the Holy Scriptures is clear that the apostle Paul was never referred to as one of “the twelve.” Therefore, it logically follows that one of “the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb” inscribed on the foundation stones of the New Jerusalem is that of Matthias and not that of Paul. This means that the vision of the apostle John reflects the situation that existed at the start of the Christian congregation on the day of Pentecost in the year 33 C.E.—See PAUL.
End of the Apostolic Period. Though the Bible does not relate the death of the 12 apostles, aside from that of James, the evidence available indicates that they maintained their faithfulness until death and therefore needed no replacement. Concerning history in the following centuries, the observation is made that “whenever it [the term “apostle”] is applied to individuals in later Christian literature, the use of the term is metaphorical. The church has never had apostles in the N[ew] T[estament] sense since the first century.”—The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, edited by G. A. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 1, p. 172.
During their lifetime the apostles’ presence served as a restraint upon the influences of apostasy, holding back the forces of false worship within the Christian congregation. It is evidently to this “restraint” that the apostle Paul referred at 2 Thessalonians 2:7: “True, the mystery of this lawlessness is already at work; but only till he who is right now acting as a restraint gets to be out of the way.” (Compare Mt 13:24, 25; Ac 20:29, 30.) This apostolic influence, including the authority and powers unique with them, continued until the death of John about 100 C.E. (1Jo 2:26; 3Jo 9, 10) The rapid influx of apostasy and false doctrine and practices after the death of the apostles shows that any pretended apostolic successors had none of the restraining influence of the apostles.
The reference to Andronicus and Junias at Romans 16:7 as “men of note among the apostles” indicates, not that they were apostles, but, rather, that they were held in high repute by the apostles. That some made false pretenses of being “apostles of Christ” is shown at 2 Corinthians 11:5, 13; 12:11, 12; Revelation 2:2.
The fall of the empire of the gene
Demise of the Gene
Evolution News & Views September 19, 2012
Like much of the rest of the world that follows science news, we have been overwhelmed by the implications of ENCODE 2.0. From reading through the papers and looking at the data, it is quite clear that the unit "gene" is no more. That is to say, the "gene" is to morphogenesis what "phlogiston" is to chemistry and physics....an obsolete concept. And with the former void of content, the framework of evolutionary/population genetics is, well, gone. That's right: Gone. What do we inherit, then? A phenotype (= RNA sequences; transcripts).
Note well:
...three-quarters of the human genome is capable of being transcribed, as well as observations about the range and levels of expression, localization, processing fates, regulatory regions and modifications of almost all currently annotated and thousands of previously unannotated RNAs. These observations, taken together, prompt a redefinition of the concept of a gene.
This supports and is consistent with earlier observations of a highly interleaved transcribed genome, but more importantly, prompts the reconsideration of the definition of a gene. As this is a consistent characteristic of annotated genomes, we would propose that the TRANSCRIPT be considered as THE BASIC ATOMIC UNIT OF INHERITANCE. Concomitantly, the term gene would then denote a higher-order concept intended to capture all those transcripts (eventually divorced from their genomic locations) that contribute to a given phenotypic trait. (Landscape of transcription in human cells. Sarah Djebali et al. Nature 2012 489: 101-108.)
And:
Although the gene has conventionally been viewed as the fundamental unit of genomic organization, on the basis of ENCODE data it is now compellingly argued that this unit is not the gene but rather the transcript (Washietl et al. 2007; Djebali et al. 2012a). On this view, genes represent a higher-order framework around which individual transcripts coalesce, creating a poly-functional entity that assumes different forms under different cellular states, guided by differential utilization of regulatory DNA. (What does our genome encode? John A. Stamatoyannopoulos Genome Res. 2012 22: 1602-1611.)
Evolution News & Views September 19, 2012
Like much of the rest of the world that follows science news, we have been overwhelmed by the implications of ENCODE 2.0. From reading through the papers and looking at the data, it is quite clear that the unit "gene" is no more. That is to say, the "gene" is to morphogenesis what "phlogiston" is to chemistry and physics....an obsolete concept. And with the former void of content, the framework of evolutionary/population genetics is, well, gone. That's right: Gone. What do we inherit, then? A phenotype (= RNA sequences; transcripts).
Note well:
...three-quarters of the human genome is capable of being transcribed, as well as observations about the range and levels of expression, localization, processing fates, regulatory regions and modifications of almost all currently annotated and thousands of previously unannotated RNAs. These observations, taken together, prompt a redefinition of the concept of a gene.
This supports and is consistent with earlier observations of a highly interleaved transcribed genome, but more importantly, prompts the reconsideration of the definition of a gene. As this is a consistent characteristic of annotated genomes, we would propose that the TRANSCRIPT be considered as THE BASIC ATOMIC UNIT OF INHERITANCE. Concomitantly, the term gene would then denote a higher-order concept intended to capture all those transcripts (eventually divorced from their genomic locations) that contribute to a given phenotypic trait. (Landscape of transcription in human cells. Sarah Djebali et al. Nature 2012 489: 101-108.)
And:
Although the gene has conventionally been viewed as the fundamental unit of genomic organization, on the basis of ENCODE data it is now compellingly argued that this unit is not the gene but rather the transcript (Washietl et al. 2007; Djebali et al. 2012a). On this view, genes represent a higher-order framework around which individual transcripts coalesce, creating a poly-functional entity that assumes different forms under different cellular states, guided by differential utilization of regulatory DNA. (What does our genome encode? John A. Stamatoyannopoulos Genome Res. 2012 22: 1602-1611.)
Saturday 17 October 2015
The Watchtower Society's commentary on the transmission and authenticity of the scriptures.
BIBLE:
The Holy Scriptures, the inspired Word of Jehovah, acknowledged as the greatest book of all times because of its antiquity, its total circulation, the number of languages into which it has been translated, its surpassing greatness as a literary masterpiece, and its overwhelming importance to all mankind. Independent of all other books, it imitates no other. It stands on its own merits, giving credit to its unique Author. The Bible is also distinguished as having survived more violent controversy than any other book, hated as it is by many enemies.
Name. The English word “Bible” comes through the Latin from the Greek word bi·bliʹa, meaning “little books.” This, in turn, is derived from biʹblos, a word that describes the inner part of the papyrus plant out of which a primitive form of paper was made. The Phoenician city of Gebal, famous for its papyrus trade, was called by the Greeks “Byblos.” (See Jos 13:5, ftn.) In time bi·bliʹa came to describe various writings, scrolls, books, and eventually the collection of little books that make up the Bible. Jerome called this collection Bibliotheca Divina, the Divine Library.
Jesus and writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures referred to the collection of sacred writings as “the Scriptures,” or “the holy Scriptures,” “the holy writings.” (Mt 21:42; Mr 14:49; Lu 24:32; Joh 5:39; Ac 18:24; Ro 1:2; 15:4; 2Ti 3:15, 16) The collection is the written expression of a communicating God, the Word of God, and this is acknowledged in phrases such as “expression of Jehovah’s mouth” (De 8:3), “sayings of Jehovah” (Jos 24:27), “commandments of Jehovah” (Ezr 7:11), “law of Jehovah,” “reminder of Jehovah,” “orders from Jehovah” (Ps 19:7, 8), “word of Jehovah” (Isa 38:4), ‘utterance of Jehovah’ (Mt 4:4), “Jehovah’s word” (1Th 4:15). Repeatedly these writings are spoken of as “sacred pronouncements of God.”—Ro 3:2; Ac 7:38; Heb 5:12; 1Pe 4:11.
Divisions. Sixty-six individual books from Genesis to Revelation make up the Bible canon. The choice of these particular books, and the rejection of many others, is evidence that the Divine Author not only inspired their writing but also carefully guarded their collection and preservation within the sacred catalog. (See APOCRYPHA; CANON.) Thirty-nine of the 66 books, making up three quarters of the Bible’s contents, are known as the Hebrew Scriptures, all having been initially written in that language with the exception of a few small sections written in Aramaic. (Ezr 4:8–6:18; 7:12-26; Jer 10:11; Da 2:4b–7:28) By combining some of these books, the Jews had a total of only 22 or 24 books, yet these embraced the same material. It also appears to have been their custom to subdivide the Scriptures into three parts—‘the law of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms.’ (Lu 24:44; see HEBREW SCRIPTURES.) The last quarter of the Bible is known as the Christian Greek Scriptures, so designated because the 27 books comprising this section were written in Greek. The writing, collecting, and arrangement of these books within the Bible’s canon also demonstrate Jehovah’s supervision from start to finish.—See CHRISTIAN GREEK SCRIPTURES.
Subdividing the Bible into chapters and verses (KJ has 1,189 chapters and 31,102 verses) was not done by the original writers, but it was a very useful device added centuries later. The Masoretes divided the Hebrew Scriptures into verses; then in the 13th century of our Common Era chapter divisions were added. Finally, in 1553 Robert Estienne’s edition of the French Bible was published as the first complete Bible with the present chapter and verse divisions.
The 66 Bible books all together form but a single work, a complete whole. As the chapter and verse marks are only convenient aids for Bible study and are not intended to detract from the unity of the whole, so also is the sectioning of the Bible, which is done according to the predominant language in which the manuscripts have come down to us. We, therefore, have both the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, with “Christian” added to the latter to distinguish them from the Greek Septuagint, which is the Hebrew portion of the Scriptures translated into Greek.
“Old Testament” and “New Testament.” Today it is a common practice to refer to the Scriptures written in Hebrew and Aramaic as the “Old Testament.” This is based on the reading in 2 Corinthians 3:14 in the Latin Vulgate and the King James Version. However, the rendering “old testament” in this text is incorrect. The Greek word di·a·theʹkes here means “covenant,” as it does in the other 32 places where it occurs in the Greek text. Many modern translations correctly read “old covenant.” (NE, RS, JB) The apostle Paul is not referring to the Hebrew and Aramaic Scriptures in their entirety. Neither does he mean that the inspired Christian writings constitute a “new testament (or, covenant).” The apostle is speaking of the old Law covenant, which was recorded by Moses in the Pentateuch and which makes up only a part of the pre-Christian Scriptures. For this reason he says in the next verse, “whenever Moses is read.”
Hence, there is no valid basis for the Hebrew and Aramaic Scriptures to be called the “Old Testament” and for the Christian Greek Scriptures to be called the “New Testament.” Jesus Christ himself referred to the collection of sacred writings as “the Scriptures.” (Mt 21:42; Mr 14:49; Joh 5:39) The apostle Paul referred to them as “the holy Scriptures,” “the Scriptures,” and “the holy writings.”—Ro 1:2; 15:4; 2Ti 3:15.
Authorship. The accompanying table shows that about 40 human secretaries or scribes were used by the one Author to record the inspired Word of Jehovah. “All Scripture is inspired of God,” and this includes the writings in the Christian Greek Scriptures along with “the rest of the Scriptures.” (2Ti 3:16; 2Pe 3:15, 16) This expression “inspired of God” translated the Greek phrase the·oʹpneu·stos, meaning “God-breathed.” By ‘breathing’ on faithful men, God caused his spirit, or active force, to become operative upon them and directed what he wanted recorded, for, as it is written, “prophecy was at no time brought by man’s will, but men spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit.”—2Pe 1:21; Joh 20:21, 22; see INSPIRATION.
This unseen holy spirit of God is his symbolic “finger.” Therefore, when men saw Moses perform supernatural feats they exclaimed: “It is the finger of God!” (Ex 8:18, 19; compare with Jesus’ words at Mt 12:22, 28; Lu 11:20.) In a similar display of divine power “God’s finger” began the writing of the Bible by carving out the Ten Commandments on stone tablets. (Ex 31:18; De 9:10) It would, therefore, be a simple matter for Jehovah to use men as his scribes even though some were “unlettered and ordinary” in scholastic training (Ac 4:13), and regardless of whether the individual was by trade a shepherd, farmer, tentmaker, fisherman, tax collector, physician, priest, prophet, or king. Jehovah’s active force put the thoughts into the writer’s mind and, in certain instances, allowed him to express the divine thought in his own words, thus permitting personality and individual traits to show through the writing, yet at the same time maintaining a superb oneness in theme and in purpose throughout. In this way the resultant Bible, reflecting as it does the mind and will of Jehovah, exceeded in wealth and in scope the writings of mere men. The Almighty God saw to it that his written Word of truth was in language easily understood and easily translated into practically any tongue.
No other book took so long to complete as the Bible. In 1513 B.C.E. Moses began Bible writing. Other sacred writings were added to the inspired Scriptures until sometime after 443 B.C.E. when Nehemiah and Malachi completed their books. Then there was a gap in Bible writing for almost 500 years, until the apostle Matthew penned his historic account. Nearly 60 years later John, the last of the apostles, contributed his Gospel and three letters to complete the Bible’s canon. So, all together, a period of some 1,610 years was involved in producing the Bible. All the cowriters were Hebrews and, hence, part of that people “entrusted with the sacred pronouncements of God.”—Ro 3:2.
The Bible is not an unrelated assortment or collection of heterogeneous fragments from Jewish and Christian literature. Rather, it is an organizational book, highly unified and interconnected in its various segments, which indeed reflect the systematic orderliness of the Creator-Author himself. God’s dealings with Israel in giving them a comprehensive law code as well as regulations governing matters even down to small details of camp life—things that were later mirrored in the Davidic kingdom as well as in the congregational arrangement among first-century Christians—reflect and magnify this organizational aspect of the Bible.
Contents. In contents this Book of Books reveals the past, explains the present, and foretells the future. These are matters that only He who knows the end from the beginning could author. (Isa 46:10) Starting at the beginning by telling of the creation of heaven and earth, the Bible next gives a sweeping account of the events that prepared the earth for man’s habitation. Then the truly scientific explanation of the origin of man is revealed—how life comes only from a Life-Giver—facts that only the Creator now in the role of Author could explain. (Ge 1:26-28; 2:7) With the account of why men die, the overriding theme that permeates the whole Bible was introduced. This theme, the vindication of Jehovah’s sovereignty and the ultimate fulfillment of his purpose for the earth, by means of his Kingdom under Christ, the promised Seed, was wrapped up in the first prophecy concerning ‘the seed of the woman.’ (Ge 3:15) More than 2,000 years passed before this promise of a “seed” was again mentioned, God telling Abraham: “By means of your seed all nations of the earth will certainly bless themselves.” (Ge 22:18) Over 800 years later, renewed assurance was given to Abraham’s descendant King David, and with the passing of more time Jehovah’s prophets kept this flame of hope burning brightly. (2Sa 7:12, 16; Isa 9:6, 7) More than 1,000 years after David and 4,000 years after the original prophecy in Eden, the Promised Seed himself appeared, Jesus Christ, the legal heir to “the throne of David his father.” (Lu 1:31-33; Ga 3:16) Bruised in death by the earthly seed of the “serpent,” this “Son of the Most High” provided the ransom purchase price for the life rights lost to Adam’s offspring, thus providing the only means whereby mankind can get everlasting life. He was then raised on high, there to await the appointed time to hurl “the original serpent, the one called Devil and Satan,” down to the earth, finally to be destroyed forever. Thus the magnificent theme announced in Genesis and developed and enlarged upon throughout the balance of the Bible is, in the closing chapters of Revelation, brought to a glorious climax as Jehovah’s grand purpose by means of his Kingdom is made apparent.—Re 11:15; 12:1-12, 17; 19:11-16; 20:1-3, 7-10; 21:1-5; 22:3-5.
Through this Kingdom under Christ the Promised Seed, Jehovah’s sovereignty will be vindicated and his name will be sanctified. Following through on this theme, the Bible magnifies God’s personal name to a greater extent than any other book; the name occurs 6,973 times in the Hebrew Scripture portion of the New World Translation. That is in addition to the use of the shorter form “Jah” and the scores of instances where it combines to form other names like “Jehoshua,” meaning “Jehovah Is Salvation.” (See JEHOVAH [Importance of the Name].) We would not know the Creator’s name, the great issue involving his sovereignty raised by the Edenic rebellion, or God’s purpose to sanctify his name and vindicate his sovereignty before all creation if these things were not revealed in the Bible.
In this library of 66 little books the theme of the Kingdom and Jehovah’s name are closely interwoven with information on many subjects. Its reference to fields of knowledge such as agriculture, architecture, astronomy, chemistry, commerce, engineering, ethnology, government, hygiene, music, poetry, philology, and tactical warfare is only incidental to development of the theme; not as a treatise. Nevertheless, it contains a veritable treasure-house of information for the archaeologists and paleographers.
As an accurate historical work and one that penetrates the past to great depths, the Bible far surpasses all other books. However, it is of much greater value in the field of prophecy, foretelling as it does the future that only the King of Eternity can reveal with accuracy. The march of world powers down through the centuries, even to the rise and ultimate demise of present-day institutions, was prophetically related in the Bible’s long-range prophecies.
God’s Word of truth in a very practical way sets men free from ignorance, superstitions, human philosophies, and senseless traditions of men. (Joh 8:32) “The word of God is alive and exerts power.” (Heb 4:12) Without the Bible we would not know Jehovah, would not know the wonderful benefits resulting from Christ’s ransom sacrifice, and would not understand the requirements that must be met in order to get everlasting life in or under God’s righteous Kingdom.
The Bible is a most practical book in other ways too, for it gives sound counsel to Christians on how to live now, how to carry on their ministry, and how to survive this anti-God, pleasure-seeking system of things. Christians are told to “quit being fashioned after this system of things” by making their minds over from worldly thinking, and this they can do by having the same mental attitude of humility “that was also in Christ Jesus” and by stripping off the old personality and putting on the new one. (Ro 12:2; Php 2:5-8; Eph 4:23, 24; Col 3:5-10) This means displaying the fruitage of God’s spirit, “love, joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faith, mildness, self-control”—subjects on which so much is written throughout the Bible.—Ga 5:22, 23; Col 3:12-14.
Authenticity. The veracity of the Bible has been assailed from many quarters, but none of these efforts has undermined or weakened its position in the least.
Bible history. Sir Isaac Newton once said: “I find more sure marks of authenticity in the Bible than in any profane history whatsoever.” (Two Apologies, by R. Watson, London, 1820, p. 57) Its integrity to truth proves sound on any point that might be tested. Its history is accurate and can be relied upon. For example, what it says about the fall of Babylon to the Medes and Persians cannot be successfully contradicted (Jer 51:11, 12, 28; Da 5:28), neither can what it says about people like Babylonian Nebuchadnezzar (Jer 27:20; Da 1:1); Egyptian King Shishak (1Ki 14:25; 2Ch 12:2); Assyrians Tiglath-pileser III and Sennacherib (2Ki 15:29; 16:7; 18:13); the Roman emperors Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius (Lu 2:1; 3:1; Ac 18:2); Romans such as Pilate, Felix, and Festus (Ac 4:27; 23:26; 24:27); nor what it says about the temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the Areopagus at Athens (Ac 19:35; 17:19-34). What the Bible says about these or any other places, people, or events is historically accurate in every detail.—See ARCHAEOLOGY.
Races and languages. What the Bible says about races and languages of mankind is also true. All peoples, regardless of stature, culture, color, or language, are members of one human family. The threefold division of the human family into the Japhetic, Hamitic, and Semitic races, all descending from Adam through Noah, cannot be successfully disputed. (Ge 9:18, 19; Ac 17:26) Says Sir Henry Rawlinson: “If we were to be guided by the mere intersection of linguistic paths, and independently of all reference to the Scriptural record, we should still be led to fix on the plains of Shinar, as the focus from which the various lines had radiated.”—The Historical Evidences of the Truth of the Scripture Records, by G. Rawlinson, 1862, p. 287; Ge 11:2-9.
Practicality. The Bible’s teachings, examples, and doctrines are most practical for modern man. The righteous principles and high moral standards contained in this book set it apart as far above all other books. Not only does the Bible answer important questions but it also provides many practical suggestions which, if followed, would do much to raise the physical and mental health of earth’s population. The Bible lays down principles of right and wrong that serve as a straightedge for just business dealings (Mt 7:12; Le 19:35, 36; Pr 20:10; 22:22, 23), industriousness (Eph 4:28; Col 3:23; 1Th 4:11, 12; 2Th 3:10-12), clean moral conduct (Ga 5:19-23; 1Th 4:3-8; Ex 20:14-17; Le 20:10-16), upbuilding associations (1Co 15:33; Heb 10:24, 25; Pr 5:3-11; 13:20), good family relationships (Eph 5:21-33; 6:1-4; Col 3:18-21; De 6:4-9; Pr 13:24). As the famous educator William Lyon Phelps once said: “I believe a knowledge of the Bible without a college course is more valuable than a college course without a Bible.” (The New Dictionary of Thoughts, p. 46) Regarding the Bible, John Quincy Adams wrote: “It is of all books in the world, that which contributes most to make men good, wise, and happy.”—Letters of John Quincy Adams to His Son, 1849, p. 9.
Scientific accuracy. When it comes to scientific accuracy the Bible is not lacking. Whether describing the progressive order of earth’s preparation for human habitation (Ge 1:1-31), speaking of the earth as being spherical and hung on “nothing” (Job 26:7; Isa 40:22), classifying the hare as a cud chewer (Le 11:6), or declaring, “the soul of the flesh is in the blood” (Le 17:11-14), the Bible is scientifically sound.
Cultures and customs. On points relating to cultures and customs, in no regard is the Bible found to be wrong. In political matters, the Bible always speaks of a ruler by the proper title that he bore at the time of the writing. For example, Herod Antipas and Lysanias are referred to as district rulers (tetrarchs), Herod Agrippa (II) as king, and Gallio as proconsul. (Lu 3:1; Ac 25:13; 18:12) Triumphal marches of victorious armies, together with their captives, were common during Roman times. (2Co 2:14) The hospitality shown to strangers, the Oriental way of life, the manner of purchasing property, legal procedures in making contracts, and the practice of circumcision among the Hebrews and other peoples are referred to in the Bible, and in all these details the Bible is accurate.—Ge 18:1-8; 23:7-18; 17:10-14; Jer 9:25, 26.
Candor. Bible writers displayed a candor that is not found among other ancient writers. From the very outset, Moses frankly reported his own sins as well as the sins and errors of his people, a policy followed by the other Hebrew writers. (Ex 14:11, 12; 32:1-6; Nu 14:1-9; 20:9-12; 27:12-14; De 4:21) The sins of great ones such as David and Solomon were not covered over but were reported. (2Sa 11:2-27; 1Ki 11:1-13) Jonah told of his own disobedience. (Jon 1:1-3; 4:1) The other prophets likewise displayed this same straightforward, candid quality. Writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures showed the same regard for truthful reporting as that displayed in the Hebrew Scriptures. Paul tells of his former sinful course in life; Mark’s failure to stick to the missionary work; and also the apostle Peter’s errors are related. (Ac 22:19, 20; 15:37-39; Ga 2:11-14) Such frank, open reporting builds confidence in the Bible’s claim to honesty and truthfulness.
Integrity. Facts testify to the integrity of the Bible. The Bible narrative is inseparably interwoven with the history of the times. It gives straightforward, truthful instruction in the simplest manner. The guileless earnestness and fidelity of its writers, their burning zeal for truth, and their painstaking effort to attain accuracy in details are what we would expect in God’s Word of truth.—Joh 17:17.
Prophecy. If there is a single point that alone proves the Bible to be the inspired Word of Jehovah it is the matter of prophecy. There are scores of long-range prophecies in the Bible that have been fulfilled. For a partial listing, see the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pp. 343-346.
Preservation. Today none of the original writings of the Holy Scriptures are known to exist. Jehovah, however, saw to it that copies were made to replace the aging originals. Also, from and after the Babylonian exile, with the growth of many Jewish communities outside Palestine, there was an increasing demand for more copies of the Scriptures. This demand was met by professional copyists who made extraordinary efforts to see that accuracy was attained in their handwritten manuscripts. Ezra was just such a man, “a skilled copyist in the law of Moses, which Jehovah the God of Israel had given.”—Ezr 7:6.
For hundreds of years handwritten copies of the Scriptures continued to be made, during which period the Bible was expanded with the addition of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Translations or versions of these Holy Writings also appeared in other languages. Indeed, the Hebrew Scriptures are honored as the first book of note to be translated into another language. Extant today are thousands of these Bible manuscripts and versions.—See MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE; VERSIONS.
The first printed Bible, the Gutenberg Bible, came off the press in 1456. Today distribution of the Bible (the whole or in part) has reached over four billion copies in upwards of 2,000 languages. But this has not been accomplished without great opposition from many quarters. Indeed, the Bible has had more enemies than any other book; popes and councils even prohibited the reading of the Bible under penalty of excommunication. Thousands of Bible lovers lost their lives, and thousands of copies of the Bible were committed to the flames. One of the victims in the Bible’s fight to live was translator William Tyndale, who once declared in a discussion with a cleric: “If God spare my life ere many years, I will cause a boy that driveth the plough shall know more of the Scripture than thou doest.”—Actes and Monuments, by John Foxe, London, 1563, p. 514.
All credit and thanksgiving for the Bible’s survival in view of such violent opposition is due Jehovah, the Preserver of his Word. This fact gives added meaning to the apostle Peter’s quotation from the prophet Isaiah: “All flesh is like grass, and all its glory is like a blossom of grass; the grass becomes withered, and the flower falls off, but the saying of Jehovah endures forever.” (1Pe 1:24, 25; Isa 40:6-8) We, therefore, do well to pay “attention to it as to a lamp shining in a dark place” in this 21st century. (2Pe 1:19; Ps 119:105) The man whose “delight is in the law of Jehovah, and in his law he reads in an undertone day and night” and who puts in practice the things he reads is the one who prospers and is happy. (Ps 1:1, 2; Jos 1:8) To him Jehovah’s laws, reminders, orders, commandments, and judicial decisions contained in the Bible are “sweeter than honey,” and the wisdom derived therefrom is “more to be desired than gold, yes, than much refined gold,” for it means his very life.—Ps 19:7-10; Pr 3:13, 16-18; see CANON.
[Chart on page 309]
TABLE OF BIBLE BOOKS IN ORDER COMPLETED
(The order in which the Bible books were written and where each stands in relation to the others is approximate; some dates [and places written] are uncertain. The symbol a. means “after”; b., “before”; and c., “circa” or “about.”)
Hebrew Scriptures (B.C.E.)
Book Writer Date Time Place Written
Completed Covered
Genesis Moses 1513 “In the Wilderness
beginning”
to 1657
Exodus Moses 1512 1657-1512 Wilderness
Leviticus Moses 1512 1 month Wilderness
(1512)
Job Moses c. 1473 Over 140 Wilderness
years
between
1657 and
1473
Numbers Moses 1473 1512-1473 Wilderness/
Plains of Moab
Deuteronomy Moses 1473 2 months Plains of Moab
(1473)
Joshua Joshua c. 1450 1473– Canaan
c. 1450
Judges Samuel c. 1100 c. 1450– Israel
c. 1120
Ruth Samuel c. 1090 11 years Israel
of Judges’
rule
1 Samuel Samuel; c. 1078 c. 1180-1078 Israel
Gad;
Nathan
2 Samuel Gad; c. 1040 1077–c. 1040 Israel
Nathan
Song of Solomon c. 1020 Jerusalem
Solomon
Ecclesiastes Solomon b. 1000 Jerusalem
Jonah Jonah c. 844
Joel Joel c. 820 (?) Judah
Amos Amos c. 804 Judah
Hosea Hosea a. 745 b. 804– Samaria
a. 745 (District)
Isaiah Isaiah a. 732 c. 778– Jerusalem
a. 732
Micah Micah b. 717 c. 777-717 Judah
Proverbs Solomon; c. 717 Jerusalem
Agur;
Lemuel
Zephaniah Zephaniah b. 648 Judah
Nahum Nahum b. 632 Judah
Habakkuk Habakkuk c. 628 (?) Judah
Lamentations Jeremiah 607 Nr. Jerusalem
Obadiah Obadiah c. 607
Ezekiel Ezekiel c. 591 613–c. 591 Babylon
1 and 2 Jeremiah 580 c. 1040-580 Judah/Egypt
Kings
Jeremiah Jeremiah 580 647-580 Judah/Egypt
Daniel Daniel c. 536 618–c. 536 Babylon
Haggai Haggai 520 112 days Jerusalem
(520)
Zechariah Zechariah 518 520-518 Jerusalem
Esther Mordecai c. 475 493–c. 475 Shushan, Elam
1 and 2 Ezra c. 460 After Jerusalem (?)
Chronicles 1 Chronicles 9:44,
1077-537
Ezra Ezra c. 460 537–c. 467 Jerusalem
Psalms David c. 460
and others
Nehemiah Nehemiah a. 443 456–a. 443 Jerusalem
Malachi Malachi a. 443 Jerusalem
[Chart on page 310]
Christian Greek Scriptures (C.E.)
Book Writer Date Time Place Written
Completed Covered
Matthew Matthew c. 41 2 B.C.E.– Palestine
33 C.E.
1 Thessalonians
Paul c. 50 Corinth
2 Thessalonians
Paul c. 51 Corinth
Galatians Paul c. 50-52 Corinth or
Syr. Antioch
1 Corinthians
Paul c. 55 Ephesus
2 Corinthians
Paul c. 55 Macedonia
Romans Paul c. 56 Corinth
Luke Luke c. 56-58 3 B.C.E.– Caesarea
33 C.E.
Ephesians Paul c. 60-61 Rome
Colossians Paul c. 60-61 Rome
Philemon Paul c. 60-61 Rome
Philippians Paul c. 60-61 Rome
Hebrews Paul c. 61 Rome
Acts Luke c. 61 33–c. Rome
61 C.E.
James James b. 62 Jerusalem
Mark Mark c. 60-65 29-33 C.E. Rome
1 Timothy Paul c. 61-64 Macedonia
Titus Paul c. 61-64 Macedonia (?)
1 Peter Peter c. 62-64 Babylon
2 Peter Peter c. 64 Babylon (?)
2 Timothy Paul c. 65 Rome
Jude Jude c. 65 Palestine (?)
Revelation John c. 96 Patmos
John John c. 98 After Ephesus, or near
prologue,
29-33 C.E.
1 John John c. 98 Ephesus, or near
2 John John c. 98 Ephesus, or near
3 John John c. 98 Ephesus, or near
The Holy Scriptures, the inspired Word of Jehovah, acknowledged as the greatest book of all times because of its antiquity, its total circulation, the number of languages into which it has been translated, its surpassing greatness as a literary masterpiece, and its overwhelming importance to all mankind. Independent of all other books, it imitates no other. It stands on its own merits, giving credit to its unique Author. The Bible is also distinguished as having survived more violent controversy than any other book, hated as it is by many enemies.
Name. The English word “Bible” comes through the Latin from the Greek word bi·bliʹa, meaning “little books.” This, in turn, is derived from biʹblos, a word that describes the inner part of the papyrus plant out of which a primitive form of paper was made. The Phoenician city of Gebal, famous for its papyrus trade, was called by the Greeks “Byblos.” (See Jos 13:5, ftn.) In time bi·bliʹa came to describe various writings, scrolls, books, and eventually the collection of little books that make up the Bible. Jerome called this collection Bibliotheca Divina, the Divine Library.
Jesus and writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures referred to the collection of sacred writings as “the Scriptures,” or “the holy Scriptures,” “the holy writings.” (Mt 21:42; Mr 14:49; Lu 24:32; Joh 5:39; Ac 18:24; Ro 1:2; 15:4; 2Ti 3:15, 16) The collection is the written expression of a communicating God, the Word of God, and this is acknowledged in phrases such as “expression of Jehovah’s mouth” (De 8:3), “sayings of Jehovah” (Jos 24:27), “commandments of Jehovah” (Ezr 7:11), “law of Jehovah,” “reminder of Jehovah,” “orders from Jehovah” (Ps 19:7, 8), “word of Jehovah” (Isa 38:4), ‘utterance of Jehovah’ (Mt 4:4), “Jehovah’s word” (1Th 4:15). Repeatedly these writings are spoken of as “sacred pronouncements of God.”—Ro 3:2; Ac 7:38; Heb 5:12; 1Pe 4:11.
Divisions. Sixty-six individual books from Genesis to Revelation make up the Bible canon. The choice of these particular books, and the rejection of many others, is evidence that the Divine Author not only inspired their writing but also carefully guarded their collection and preservation within the sacred catalog. (See APOCRYPHA; CANON.) Thirty-nine of the 66 books, making up three quarters of the Bible’s contents, are known as the Hebrew Scriptures, all having been initially written in that language with the exception of a few small sections written in Aramaic. (Ezr 4:8–6:18; 7:12-26; Jer 10:11; Da 2:4b–7:28) By combining some of these books, the Jews had a total of only 22 or 24 books, yet these embraced the same material. It also appears to have been their custom to subdivide the Scriptures into three parts—‘the law of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms.’ (Lu 24:44; see HEBREW SCRIPTURES.) The last quarter of the Bible is known as the Christian Greek Scriptures, so designated because the 27 books comprising this section were written in Greek. The writing, collecting, and arrangement of these books within the Bible’s canon also demonstrate Jehovah’s supervision from start to finish.—See CHRISTIAN GREEK SCRIPTURES.
Subdividing the Bible into chapters and verses (KJ has 1,189 chapters and 31,102 verses) was not done by the original writers, but it was a very useful device added centuries later. The Masoretes divided the Hebrew Scriptures into verses; then in the 13th century of our Common Era chapter divisions were added. Finally, in 1553 Robert Estienne’s edition of the French Bible was published as the first complete Bible with the present chapter and verse divisions.
The 66 Bible books all together form but a single work, a complete whole. As the chapter and verse marks are only convenient aids for Bible study and are not intended to detract from the unity of the whole, so also is the sectioning of the Bible, which is done according to the predominant language in which the manuscripts have come down to us. We, therefore, have both the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, with “Christian” added to the latter to distinguish them from the Greek Septuagint, which is the Hebrew portion of the Scriptures translated into Greek.
“Old Testament” and “New Testament.” Today it is a common practice to refer to the Scriptures written in Hebrew and Aramaic as the “Old Testament.” This is based on the reading in 2 Corinthians 3:14 in the Latin Vulgate and the King James Version. However, the rendering “old testament” in this text is incorrect. The Greek word di·a·theʹkes here means “covenant,” as it does in the other 32 places where it occurs in the Greek text. Many modern translations correctly read “old covenant.” (NE, RS, JB) The apostle Paul is not referring to the Hebrew and Aramaic Scriptures in their entirety. Neither does he mean that the inspired Christian writings constitute a “new testament (or, covenant).” The apostle is speaking of the old Law covenant, which was recorded by Moses in the Pentateuch and which makes up only a part of the pre-Christian Scriptures. For this reason he says in the next verse, “whenever Moses is read.”
Hence, there is no valid basis for the Hebrew and Aramaic Scriptures to be called the “Old Testament” and for the Christian Greek Scriptures to be called the “New Testament.” Jesus Christ himself referred to the collection of sacred writings as “the Scriptures.” (Mt 21:42; Mr 14:49; Joh 5:39) The apostle Paul referred to them as “the holy Scriptures,” “the Scriptures,” and “the holy writings.”—Ro 1:2; 15:4; 2Ti 3:15.
Authorship. The accompanying table shows that about 40 human secretaries or scribes were used by the one Author to record the inspired Word of Jehovah. “All Scripture is inspired of God,” and this includes the writings in the Christian Greek Scriptures along with “the rest of the Scriptures.” (2Ti 3:16; 2Pe 3:15, 16) This expression “inspired of God” translated the Greek phrase the·oʹpneu·stos, meaning “God-breathed.” By ‘breathing’ on faithful men, God caused his spirit, or active force, to become operative upon them and directed what he wanted recorded, for, as it is written, “prophecy was at no time brought by man’s will, but men spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit.”—2Pe 1:21; Joh 20:21, 22; see INSPIRATION.
This unseen holy spirit of God is his symbolic “finger.” Therefore, when men saw Moses perform supernatural feats they exclaimed: “It is the finger of God!” (Ex 8:18, 19; compare with Jesus’ words at Mt 12:22, 28; Lu 11:20.) In a similar display of divine power “God’s finger” began the writing of the Bible by carving out the Ten Commandments on stone tablets. (Ex 31:18; De 9:10) It would, therefore, be a simple matter for Jehovah to use men as his scribes even though some were “unlettered and ordinary” in scholastic training (Ac 4:13), and regardless of whether the individual was by trade a shepherd, farmer, tentmaker, fisherman, tax collector, physician, priest, prophet, or king. Jehovah’s active force put the thoughts into the writer’s mind and, in certain instances, allowed him to express the divine thought in his own words, thus permitting personality and individual traits to show through the writing, yet at the same time maintaining a superb oneness in theme and in purpose throughout. In this way the resultant Bible, reflecting as it does the mind and will of Jehovah, exceeded in wealth and in scope the writings of mere men. The Almighty God saw to it that his written Word of truth was in language easily understood and easily translated into practically any tongue.
No other book took so long to complete as the Bible. In 1513 B.C.E. Moses began Bible writing. Other sacred writings were added to the inspired Scriptures until sometime after 443 B.C.E. when Nehemiah and Malachi completed their books. Then there was a gap in Bible writing for almost 500 years, until the apostle Matthew penned his historic account. Nearly 60 years later John, the last of the apostles, contributed his Gospel and three letters to complete the Bible’s canon. So, all together, a period of some 1,610 years was involved in producing the Bible. All the cowriters were Hebrews and, hence, part of that people “entrusted with the sacred pronouncements of God.”—Ro 3:2.
The Bible is not an unrelated assortment or collection of heterogeneous fragments from Jewish and Christian literature. Rather, it is an organizational book, highly unified and interconnected in its various segments, which indeed reflect the systematic orderliness of the Creator-Author himself. God’s dealings with Israel in giving them a comprehensive law code as well as regulations governing matters even down to small details of camp life—things that were later mirrored in the Davidic kingdom as well as in the congregational arrangement among first-century Christians—reflect and magnify this organizational aspect of the Bible.
Contents. In contents this Book of Books reveals the past, explains the present, and foretells the future. These are matters that only He who knows the end from the beginning could author. (Isa 46:10) Starting at the beginning by telling of the creation of heaven and earth, the Bible next gives a sweeping account of the events that prepared the earth for man’s habitation. Then the truly scientific explanation of the origin of man is revealed—how life comes only from a Life-Giver—facts that only the Creator now in the role of Author could explain. (Ge 1:26-28; 2:7) With the account of why men die, the overriding theme that permeates the whole Bible was introduced. This theme, the vindication of Jehovah’s sovereignty and the ultimate fulfillment of his purpose for the earth, by means of his Kingdom under Christ, the promised Seed, was wrapped up in the first prophecy concerning ‘the seed of the woman.’ (Ge 3:15) More than 2,000 years passed before this promise of a “seed” was again mentioned, God telling Abraham: “By means of your seed all nations of the earth will certainly bless themselves.” (Ge 22:18) Over 800 years later, renewed assurance was given to Abraham’s descendant King David, and with the passing of more time Jehovah’s prophets kept this flame of hope burning brightly. (2Sa 7:12, 16; Isa 9:6, 7) More than 1,000 years after David and 4,000 years after the original prophecy in Eden, the Promised Seed himself appeared, Jesus Christ, the legal heir to “the throne of David his father.” (Lu 1:31-33; Ga 3:16) Bruised in death by the earthly seed of the “serpent,” this “Son of the Most High” provided the ransom purchase price for the life rights lost to Adam’s offspring, thus providing the only means whereby mankind can get everlasting life. He was then raised on high, there to await the appointed time to hurl “the original serpent, the one called Devil and Satan,” down to the earth, finally to be destroyed forever. Thus the magnificent theme announced in Genesis and developed and enlarged upon throughout the balance of the Bible is, in the closing chapters of Revelation, brought to a glorious climax as Jehovah’s grand purpose by means of his Kingdom is made apparent.—Re 11:15; 12:1-12, 17; 19:11-16; 20:1-3, 7-10; 21:1-5; 22:3-5.
Through this Kingdom under Christ the Promised Seed, Jehovah’s sovereignty will be vindicated and his name will be sanctified. Following through on this theme, the Bible magnifies God’s personal name to a greater extent than any other book; the name occurs 6,973 times in the Hebrew Scripture portion of the New World Translation. That is in addition to the use of the shorter form “Jah” and the scores of instances where it combines to form other names like “Jehoshua,” meaning “Jehovah Is Salvation.” (See JEHOVAH [Importance of the Name].) We would not know the Creator’s name, the great issue involving his sovereignty raised by the Edenic rebellion, or God’s purpose to sanctify his name and vindicate his sovereignty before all creation if these things were not revealed in the Bible.
In this library of 66 little books the theme of the Kingdom and Jehovah’s name are closely interwoven with information on many subjects. Its reference to fields of knowledge such as agriculture, architecture, astronomy, chemistry, commerce, engineering, ethnology, government, hygiene, music, poetry, philology, and tactical warfare is only incidental to development of the theme; not as a treatise. Nevertheless, it contains a veritable treasure-house of information for the archaeologists and paleographers.
As an accurate historical work and one that penetrates the past to great depths, the Bible far surpasses all other books. However, it is of much greater value in the field of prophecy, foretelling as it does the future that only the King of Eternity can reveal with accuracy. The march of world powers down through the centuries, even to the rise and ultimate demise of present-day institutions, was prophetically related in the Bible’s long-range prophecies.
God’s Word of truth in a very practical way sets men free from ignorance, superstitions, human philosophies, and senseless traditions of men. (Joh 8:32) “The word of God is alive and exerts power.” (Heb 4:12) Without the Bible we would not know Jehovah, would not know the wonderful benefits resulting from Christ’s ransom sacrifice, and would not understand the requirements that must be met in order to get everlasting life in or under God’s righteous Kingdom.
The Bible is a most practical book in other ways too, for it gives sound counsel to Christians on how to live now, how to carry on their ministry, and how to survive this anti-God, pleasure-seeking system of things. Christians are told to “quit being fashioned after this system of things” by making their minds over from worldly thinking, and this they can do by having the same mental attitude of humility “that was also in Christ Jesus” and by stripping off the old personality and putting on the new one. (Ro 12:2; Php 2:5-8; Eph 4:23, 24; Col 3:5-10) This means displaying the fruitage of God’s spirit, “love, joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faith, mildness, self-control”—subjects on which so much is written throughout the Bible.—Ga 5:22, 23; Col 3:12-14.
Authenticity. The veracity of the Bible has been assailed from many quarters, but none of these efforts has undermined or weakened its position in the least.
Bible history. Sir Isaac Newton once said: “I find more sure marks of authenticity in the Bible than in any profane history whatsoever.” (Two Apologies, by R. Watson, London, 1820, p. 57) Its integrity to truth proves sound on any point that might be tested. Its history is accurate and can be relied upon. For example, what it says about the fall of Babylon to the Medes and Persians cannot be successfully contradicted (Jer 51:11, 12, 28; Da 5:28), neither can what it says about people like Babylonian Nebuchadnezzar (Jer 27:20; Da 1:1); Egyptian King Shishak (1Ki 14:25; 2Ch 12:2); Assyrians Tiglath-pileser III and Sennacherib (2Ki 15:29; 16:7; 18:13); the Roman emperors Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius (Lu 2:1; 3:1; Ac 18:2); Romans such as Pilate, Felix, and Festus (Ac 4:27; 23:26; 24:27); nor what it says about the temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the Areopagus at Athens (Ac 19:35; 17:19-34). What the Bible says about these or any other places, people, or events is historically accurate in every detail.—See ARCHAEOLOGY.
Races and languages. What the Bible says about races and languages of mankind is also true. All peoples, regardless of stature, culture, color, or language, are members of one human family. The threefold division of the human family into the Japhetic, Hamitic, and Semitic races, all descending from Adam through Noah, cannot be successfully disputed. (Ge 9:18, 19; Ac 17:26) Says Sir Henry Rawlinson: “If we were to be guided by the mere intersection of linguistic paths, and independently of all reference to the Scriptural record, we should still be led to fix on the plains of Shinar, as the focus from which the various lines had radiated.”—The Historical Evidences of the Truth of the Scripture Records, by G. Rawlinson, 1862, p. 287; Ge 11:2-9.
Practicality. The Bible’s teachings, examples, and doctrines are most practical for modern man. The righteous principles and high moral standards contained in this book set it apart as far above all other books. Not only does the Bible answer important questions but it also provides many practical suggestions which, if followed, would do much to raise the physical and mental health of earth’s population. The Bible lays down principles of right and wrong that serve as a straightedge for just business dealings (Mt 7:12; Le 19:35, 36; Pr 20:10; 22:22, 23), industriousness (Eph 4:28; Col 3:23; 1Th 4:11, 12; 2Th 3:10-12), clean moral conduct (Ga 5:19-23; 1Th 4:3-8; Ex 20:14-17; Le 20:10-16), upbuilding associations (1Co 15:33; Heb 10:24, 25; Pr 5:3-11; 13:20), good family relationships (Eph 5:21-33; 6:1-4; Col 3:18-21; De 6:4-9; Pr 13:24). As the famous educator William Lyon Phelps once said: “I believe a knowledge of the Bible without a college course is more valuable than a college course without a Bible.” (The New Dictionary of Thoughts, p. 46) Regarding the Bible, John Quincy Adams wrote: “It is of all books in the world, that which contributes most to make men good, wise, and happy.”—Letters of John Quincy Adams to His Son, 1849, p. 9.
Scientific accuracy. When it comes to scientific accuracy the Bible is not lacking. Whether describing the progressive order of earth’s preparation for human habitation (Ge 1:1-31), speaking of the earth as being spherical and hung on “nothing” (Job 26:7; Isa 40:22), classifying the hare as a cud chewer (Le 11:6), or declaring, “the soul of the flesh is in the blood” (Le 17:11-14), the Bible is scientifically sound.
Cultures and customs. On points relating to cultures and customs, in no regard is the Bible found to be wrong. In political matters, the Bible always speaks of a ruler by the proper title that he bore at the time of the writing. For example, Herod Antipas and Lysanias are referred to as district rulers (tetrarchs), Herod Agrippa (II) as king, and Gallio as proconsul. (Lu 3:1; Ac 25:13; 18:12) Triumphal marches of victorious armies, together with their captives, were common during Roman times. (2Co 2:14) The hospitality shown to strangers, the Oriental way of life, the manner of purchasing property, legal procedures in making contracts, and the practice of circumcision among the Hebrews and other peoples are referred to in the Bible, and in all these details the Bible is accurate.—Ge 18:1-8; 23:7-18; 17:10-14; Jer 9:25, 26.
Candor. Bible writers displayed a candor that is not found among other ancient writers. From the very outset, Moses frankly reported his own sins as well as the sins and errors of his people, a policy followed by the other Hebrew writers. (Ex 14:11, 12; 32:1-6; Nu 14:1-9; 20:9-12; 27:12-14; De 4:21) The sins of great ones such as David and Solomon were not covered over but were reported. (2Sa 11:2-27; 1Ki 11:1-13) Jonah told of his own disobedience. (Jon 1:1-3; 4:1) The other prophets likewise displayed this same straightforward, candid quality. Writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures showed the same regard for truthful reporting as that displayed in the Hebrew Scriptures. Paul tells of his former sinful course in life; Mark’s failure to stick to the missionary work; and also the apostle Peter’s errors are related. (Ac 22:19, 20; 15:37-39; Ga 2:11-14) Such frank, open reporting builds confidence in the Bible’s claim to honesty and truthfulness.
Integrity. Facts testify to the integrity of the Bible. The Bible narrative is inseparably interwoven with the history of the times. It gives straightforward, truthful instruction in the simplest manner. The guileless earnestness and fidelity of its writers, their burning zeal for truth, and their painstaking effort to attain accuracy in details are what we would expect in God’s Word of truth.—Joh 17:17.
Prophecy. If there is a single point that alone proves the Bible to be the inspired Word of Jehovah it is the matter of prophecy. There are scores of long-range prophecies in the Bible that have been fulfilled. For a partial listing, see the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pp. 343-346.
Preservation. Today none of the original writings of the Holy Scriptures are known to exist. Jehovah, however, saw to it that copies were made to replace the aging originals. Also, from and after the Babylonian exile, with the growth of many Jewish communities outside Palestine, there was an increasing demand for more copies of the Scriptures. This demand was met by professional copyists who made extraordinary efforts to see that accuracy was attained in their handwritten manuscripts. Ezra was just such a man, “a skilled copyist in the law of Moses, which Jehovah the God of Israel had given.”—Ezr 7:6.
For hundreds of years handwritten copies of the Scriptures continued to be made, during which period the Bible was expanded with the addition of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Translations or versions of these Holy Writings also appeared in other languages. Indeed, the Hebrew Scriptures are honored as the first book of note to be translated into another language. Extant today are thousands of these Bible manuscripts and versions.—See MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE; VERSIONS.
The first printed Bible, the Gutenberg Bible, came off the press in 1456. Today distribution of the Bible (the whole or in part) has reached over four billion copies in upwards of 2,000 languages. But this has not been accomplished without great opposition from many quarters. Indeed, the Bible has had more enemies than any other book; popes and councils even prohibited the reading of the Bible under penalty of excommunication. Thousands of Bible lovers lost their lives, and thousands of copies of the Bible were committed to the flames. One of the victims in the Bible’s fight to live was translator William Tyndale, who once declared in a discussion with a cleric: “If God spare my life ere many years, I will cause a boy that driveth the plough shall know more of the Scripture than thou doest.”—Actes and Monuments, by John Foxe, London, 1563, p. 514.
All credit and thanksgiving for the Bible’s survival in view of such violent opposition is due Jehovah, the Preserver of his Word. This fact gives added meaning to the apostle Peter’s quotation from the prophet Isaiah: “All flesh is like grass, and all its glory is like a blossom of grass; the grass becomes withered, and the flower falls off, but the saying of Jehovah endures forever.” (1Pe 1:24, 25; Isa 40:6-8) We, therefore, do well to pay “attention to it as to a lamp shining in a dark place” in this 21st century. (2Pe 1:19; Ps 119:105) The man whose “delight is in the law of Jehovah, and in his law he reads in an undertone day and night” and who puts in practice the things he reads is the one who prospers and is happy. (Ps 1:1, 2; Jos 1:8) To him Jehovah’s laws, reminders, orders, commandments, and judicial decisions contained in the Bible are “sweeter than honey,” and the wisdom derived therefrom is “more to be desired than gold, yes, than much refined gold,” for it means his very life.—Ps 19:7-10; Pr 3:13, 16-18; see CANON.
[Chart on page 309]
TABLE OF BIBLE BOOKS IN ORDER COMPLETED
(The order in which the Bible books were written and where each stands in relation to the others is approximate; some dates [and places written] are uncertain. The symbol a. means “after”; b., “before”; and c., “circa” or “about.”)
Hebrew Scriptures (B.C.E.)
Book Writer Date Time Place Written
Completed Covered
Genesis Moses 1513 “In the Wilderness
beginning”
to 1657
Exodus Moses 1512 1657-1512 Wilderness
Leviticus Moses 1512 1 month Wilderness
(1512)
Job Moses c. 1473 Over 140 Wilderness
years
between
1657 and
1473
Numbers Moses 1473 1512-1473 Wilderness/
Plains of Moab
Deuteronomy Moses 1473 2 months Plains of Moab
(1473)
Joshua Joshua c. 1450 1473– Canaan
c. 1450
Judges Samuel c. 1100 c. 1450– Israel
c. 1120
Ruth Samuel c. 1090 11 years Israel
of Judges’
rule
1 Samuel Samuel; c. 1078 c. 1180-1078 Israel
Gad;
Nathan
2 Samuel Gad; c. 1040 1077–c. 1040 Israel
Nathan
Song of Solomon c. 1020 Jerusalem
Solomon
Ecclesiastes Solomon b. 1000 Jerusalem
Jonah Jonah c. 844
Joel Joel c. 820 (?) Judah
Amos Amos c. 804 Judah
Hosea Hosea a. 745 b. 804– Samaria
a. 745 (District)
Isaiah Isaiah a. 732 c. 778– Jerusalem
a. 732
Micah Micah b. 717 c. 777-717 Judah
Proverbs Solomon; c. 717 Jerusalem
Agur;
Lemuel
Zephaniah Zephaniah b. 648 Judah
Nahum Nahum b. 632 Judah
Habakkuk Habakkuk c. 628 (?) Judah
Lamentations Jeremiah 607 Nr. Jerusalem
Obadiah Obadiah c. 607
Ezekiel Ezekiel c. 591 613–c. 591 Babylon
1 and 2 Jeremiah 580 c. 1040-580 Judah/Egypt
Kings
Jeremiah Jeremiah 580 647-580 Judah/Egypt
Daniel Daniel c. 536 618–c. 536 Babylon
Haggai Haggai 520 112 days Jerusalem
(520)
Zechariah Zechariah 518 520-518 Jerusalem
Esther Mordecai c. 475 493–c. 475 Shushan, Elam
1 and 2 Ezra c. 460 After Jerusalem (?)
Chronicles 1 Chronicles 9:44,
1077-537
Ezra Ezra c. 460 537–c. 467 Jerusalem
Psalms David c. 460
and others
Nehemiah Nehemiah a. 443 456–a. 443 Jerusalem
Malachi Malachi a. 443 Jerusalem
[Chart on page 310]
Christian Greek Scriptures (C.E.)
Book Writer Date Time Place Written
Completed Covered
Matthew Matthew c. 41 2 B.C.E.– Palestine
33 C.E.
1 Thessalonians
Paul c. 50 Corinth
2 Thessalonians
Paul c. 51 Corinth
Galatians Paul c. 50-52 Corinth or
Syr. Antioch
1 Corinthians
Paul c. 55 Ephesus
2 Corinthians
Paul c. 55 Macedonia
Romans Paul c. 56 Corinth
Luke Luke c. 56-58 3 B.C.E.– Caesarea
33 C.E.
Ephesians Paul c. 60-61 Rome
Colossians Paul c. 60-61 Rome
Philemon Paul c. 60-61 Rome
Philippians Paul c. 60-61 Rome
Hebrews Paul c. 61 Rome
Acts Luke c. 61 33–c. Rome
61 C.E.
James James b. 62 Jerusalem
Mark Mark c. 60-65 29-33 C.E. Rome
1 Timothy Paul c. 61-64 Macedonia
Titus Paul c. 61-64 Macedonia (?)
1 Peter Peter c. 62-64 Babylon
2 Peter Peter c. 64 Babylon (?)
2 Timothy Paul c. 65 Rome
Jude Jude c. 65 Palestine (?)
Revelation John c. 96 Patmos
John John c. 98 After Ephesus, or near
prologue,
29-33 C.E.
1 John John c. 98 Ephesus, or near
2 John John c. 98 Ephesus, or near
3 John John c. 98 Ephesus, or near
Darwinism Vs. the real world XVI
Blood Pressure and the Goldilocks Principle
Howard Glicksman October 16, 2015 11:38 AM
Editor's note: Physicians have a special place among the thinkers who have elaborated the argument for intelligent design. Perhaps that's because, more than evolutionary biologists, they are familiar with the challenges of maintaining a functioning complex system, the human body. With that in mind, Evolution News & Views is delighted to present this series, "The Designed Body." Dr. Glicksman practices palliative medicine for a hospice organization.
My previous article in this series showed that having enough blood pressure is required to have sufficient blood flow to the organs so they can work properly. However, having too high of a blood pressure can be problematic as well. When it comes to blood pressure, and most of the other chemical and physiological parameters of life, the body must follow the Goldilocks principle. The numbers have to be "just right," not too high and not too low, for the body to survive within the laws of nature, a vital aspect of life that evolutionary biologists never seem to address.
Using electrical devices without destroying them depends on having the right amount of electricity going through them. The same applies to the organs and tissues of the body as blood flows into the capillaries to supply them with the water and nutrients they need to live and work properly.
To get energy to your home, generating stations send out electricity along transmission lines that carry hundreds of thousands of volts. This electrical energy is scaled down for consumer use by passing through substations and transformers, finally entering the home through wires carrying a safe voltage. Similarly, the mean arterial pressure (MAP) as the blood leaves the left ventricle and enters the aorta is about 100 mmHg, and by the time it travels through the arteries and arterioles to the capillaries, has been scaled down to about 35 mmHg. This reduction in pressure is accomplished by the vascular resistance applied to the blood as it flows from the larger arteries through the smaller branching arteries and in particular, the microscopic arterioles which lead into the capillaries.
As the blood enters the capillaries under pressure, this causes some fluid to be pushed out of the circulation into the tissues, just like how water is squeezed out of a sponge. As noted previously, when the pressure on entering the capillary is about 35 mmHg, most of this filtered fluid is brought back into the circulation by the osmotic pull of albumin. This usually keeps the amount of fluid between the cells where it should be for proper organ function. Also, as noted a couple of articles back, if the MAP rises above 100 mmHg, the brain is at risk of having too high of a pressure as blood enters its capillaries, so the body protects itself by using autoregulation to contract the muscles surrounding its arterioles.
But, there are definite limits to how much vascular resistance the arterioles in the brain can apply to protect itself. In fact, if the MAP persistently stays above 170 mmHg (BP of 250/130) this can result in a hypertensive crisis. When this happens, too much fluid from the capillaries can enter the tissues and cause swelling of the brain. This usually manifests as headache and dizziness followed soon after by confusion and lethargy. If not quickly relieved, it can progress to coma and can be fatal.
Another way that too high of a blood pressure can quickly cause severe debility and even death, is related to the physical limitations of the blood vessels. After all, life doesn't take place within a vacuum or within the imaginations of evolutionary biologists. Just like in pipelines carrying water or oil, real numbers have real consequences, and when the pressure inside them is higher than what their walls can withstand, an acute rupture can take place. Probably the commonest location for this type of hemorrhage is within the brain. The brain is located in the skull, which protects it from physical injury. However, since bone is harder and less compliant than soft tissue, bleeding within the brain can cause a quick buildup of pressure, since the blood has nowhere to go.
Nerve cells do not like being put under pressure. Think of what happens when you hit your funny bone and feel tingling in your pinky for several seconds. The tingling takes place because the nerve traveling inside the bony channel of the elbow has suffered a pressure injury and malfunctions temporarily. When pressure like this builds up in the brain, it often causes headache and dizziness which, depending on the severity and location of the bleed, can quickly progress to confusion, lethargy, and coma.
For our earliest ancestors to survive long enough to reproduce, their blood pressure would have had to have stayed within a specific range. The brain generally doesn't have to use autoregulation when the MAP is between 70 and 100 mmHg (BP of 90/60 - 140/80). However, chronic elevations of MAP above 110 mmHg (BP of 140/90) can often lead to heart disease, stroke and kidney disease. A chronically elevated MAP causes an increased strain on the inner lining of the arteries, eventually resulting in endothelial damage and hardening of the arteries.
Over 95 percent of people with high blood pressure have primary idiopathic essential hypertension, which means we really don't know what causes it. It is a silent and serious condition that is very prevalent in our modern society, even in teenagers as the incidence of obesity rises within this age group. The remaining five percent have secondary hypertension, usually related to kidney disease. The higher the chronic elevation in blood pressure, the more likely and faster these complications of heart and kidney disease and stroke can occur. People with hypertension are also at increased risk of having episodes of hypertensive urgency and crisis, which, as noted above, can be fatal.
Rembember, the three main factors that affect blood pressure are how strong and fast the heart pumps, how much blood is in the arteries, and the peripheral vascular resistance applied by the downstream arterioles. It is interesting to note that the treatment of hypertension usually consists of medication that reduces the rate and force of heart contraction (beta blockers), pushes sodium and water out of the body through the kidneys (diuretics), and relaxes the muscles surrounding the arterioles to reduce the peripheral vascular resistance (vasodilators). It would appear that it is only in this modern age that medical science been finally been able to figure out what the human body has already inherently known since it first came on the scene.
Since the various functions of the body must follow the Goldilocks principle, being "just right" when it comes to the numbers, evolutionary biology's explanation for how life came into being by just looking at its various parts without considering what it takes for it to survive within the laws of nature should be viewed as, not only inadequate but also unscientific.
Now that you understand how the body makes sure its cells get what they need through the circulation of blood by way of the cardiovascular system with the right amount of blood pressure, it's time to consider another dilemma. Remember, life is a dynamic process that must come up with innovations to survive within the laws of nature. When our earliest ancestors were literally fighting to win the battle for survival, how did their bodies make sure that the necessary increase in cardiac output would result in it going where it was needed, to organs like the heart and tissues like the muscles, while at the same time preserving it within the brain?
Next time we'll answer this question and you can ask yourself why students aren't being taught these "facts of life."
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