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Tuesday 3 June 2014

Acts6-10NWT(2013 Edition)

6 Now in those days when the disciples were increasing, the Greek-speaking Jews began complaining against the Hebrew-speaking Jews, because their widows were being overlooked in the daily distribution.+ 2 So the Twelve called the multitude of the disciples together and said: “It is not right* for us to leave the word of God to distribute food to tables.+ 3 So, brothers, select for yourselves seven reputable men*+ from among you, full of spirit and wisdom,+ that we may appoint them over this necessary matter;+ 4 but we will devote ourselves to prayer and to the ministry of the word.” 5 What they said was pleasing to the whole multitude, and they selected Stephen, a man full of faith and holy spirit, as well as Philip,+ Proch′o·rus, Ni·ca′nor, Ti′mon, Par′me·nas, and Nic·o·la′us, a proselyte of Antioch. 6 They brought them to the apostles, and after praying, they laid their hands on them.+
7 Consequently, the word of God continued to spread,+ and the number of the disciples kept multiplying very much+ in Jerusalem; and a large crowd of priests began to be obedient to the faith.+
8 Now Stephen, full of divine favor and power, was performing great wonders* and signs among the people. 9 But some men of the so-called Synagogue of the Freedmen came forward, along with some Cy·re′ni·ans and Alexandrians, and some from Ci·li′cia and Asia, to dispute with Stephen. 10 But they could not hold their own against the wisdom and the spirit with which he was speaking.+ 11 Then they secretly persuaded men to say: “We have heard him speaking blasphemous things against Moses and God.” 12 And they stirred up the people, the elders, and the scribes, and coming upon him suddenly, they forcibly seized him and led him to the San′he·drin. 13 And they brought forward false witnesses, who said: “This man does not stop speaking things against this holy place and against the Law. 14 For instance, we have heard him say that this Jesus the Naz·a·rene′ will throw down this place and change the customs that Moses handed down to us.”
15 And as all those sitting in the San′he·drin stared at him, they saw that his face was like an angel’s face.
 
 
7 But the high priest said: “Are these things so?” 2 Stephen replied: “Men, brothers and fathers, listen. The God of glory appeared to our forefather Abraham while he was in Mes·o·po·ta′mi·a, before he took up residence in Ha′ran,+ 3 and he said to him: ‘Go out from your land and from your relatives and come into the land that I will show you.’+ 4 Then he went out of the land of the Chal·de′ans and took up residence in Ha′ran. And from there, after his father died,+ God caused him to resettle in this land where you now dwell.+ 5 And yet, he did not give him any inheritance in it, no, not even enough to put his foot on; but he promised to give it to him as a possession and after him to his offspring,*+ though as yet he had no child. 6 Moreover, God told him that his offspring* would be foreigners in a land not theirs and that the people would enslave them and afflict* them for 400 years.+ 7 ‘And that nation for which they will slave I will judge,’+ God said, ‘and after these things they will come out and will offer sacred service to me in this place.’+
8 “He also gave him a covenant of circumcision,+ and he became the father of Isaac+ and circumcised him on the eighth day,+ and Isaac became the father of* Jacob, and Jacob of the 12 family heads.* 9 And the family heads became jealous of Joseph+ and sold him into Egypt.+ But God was with him,+ 10 and he rescued him out of all his tribulations and gave him favor and wisdom before Phar′aoh king of Egypt. And he appointed him to govern Egypt and his whole house.+ 11 But a famine came on all of Egypt and Ca′naan, yes, a great tribulation, and our forefathers could not find anything to eat.+ 12 But Jacob heard that there were food supplies* in Egypt, and he sent our forefathers out the first time.+ 13 During the second time, Joseph made himself known to his brothers, and the family of Joseph became known to Phar′aoh.+ 14 So Joseph sent a message and called his father Jacob and all his relatives from that place,+ 75 persons* in all.+ 15 So Jacob went down into Egypt,+ and he died there,+ and so did our forefathers.+ 16 They were carried to She′chem and were laid in the tomb that Abraham had bought for a sum of silver money from the sons of Ha′mor in She′chem.+
17 “Just as the time was approaching to fulfill the promise that God had announced to Abraham, the people grew and multiplied in Egypt, 18 until there rose a different king over Egypt, one who did not know of Joseph.+ 19 This one dealt cunningly with our race and wrongfully forced the fathers to abandon their infants so that they would not be kept alive.+ 20 At that time Moses was born, and he was divinely beautiful.* And he was nursed* for three months in his father’s home.+ 21 But when he was abandoned,*+ the daughter of Phar′aoh took him and brought him up as her own son.+ 22 So Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. In fact, he was powerful in his words and deeds.+
23 “Now when he reached the age of 40, it came into his heart* to make a visit on* his brothers, the sons of Israel.+ 24 When he caught sight of one of them being unjustly treated, he defended him and avenged the one being abused by striking down the Egyptian. 25 He thought that his brothers would grasp that God was giving them salvation by his hand, but they did not grasp it. 26 The next day he appeared to them as they were fighting, and he tried to reconcile them in peace, saying: ‘Men, you are brothers. Why do you mistreat each other?’ 27 But the one who was mistreating his neighbor pushed him away, saying: ‘Who appointed you ruler and judge over us? 28 You do not want to do away with me the way you did away with the Egyptian yesterday, do you?’ 29 On hearing this, Moses fled and lived as a foreigner in the land of Mid′i·an, where he became the father of two sons.+
30 “After 40 years had passed, an angel appeared to him in the wilderness of Mount Si′nai in the flame of a burning thornbush.+ 31 When Moses saw it, he was amazed at the sight. But as he was approaching to investigate, Jehovah’s* voice was heard: 32 ‘I am the God of your forefathers, the God of Abraham and of Isaac and of Jacob.’+ Moses started trembling and did not dare to investigate further. 33 Jehovah* said to him: ‘Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place where you are standing is holy ground. 34 I have certainly seen the oppression of my people who are in Egypt, and I have heard their groaning,+ and I have come down to rescue them. Now come, I will send you off to Egypt.’ 35 This same Moses whom they had disowned, saying: ‘Who appointed you ruler and judge?’+ is the very one God sent+ as both ruler and deliverer by means of the angel who appeared to him in the thornbush. 36 This man led them out,+ performing wonders* and signs in Egypt+ and at the Red Sea+ and in the wilderness for 40 years.+
37 “This is the Moses who said to the sons of Israel: ‘God will raise up for you from among your brothers a prophet like me.’+ 38 This is the one who came to be among the congregation in the wilderness with the angel+ who spoke to him+ on Mount Si′nai and with our forefathers, and he received living sacred pronouncements to give us.+ 39 Our forefathers refused to obey him, but they pushed him aside+ and in their hearts they turned back to Egypt,+ 40 saying to Aaron: ‘Make gods for us to go ahead of us. For we do not know what has happened to this Moses, who led us out of the land of Egypt.’+ 41 So they made a calf in those days and brought a sacrifice to the idol and began to enjoy themselves in the works of their hands.+ 42 So God turned away from them and handed them over to offer sacred service to the army of heaven,+ just as it is written in the book of the Prophets: ‘It was not to me that you made offerings and sacrifices for 40 years in the wilderness, was it, O house of Israel? 43 But it was the tent of Mo′loch+ and the star of the god Re′phan that you took up, the images that you made to worship them. So I will deport you beyond Babylon.’+
44 “Our forefathers had the tent of the witness in the wilderness, just as He gave orders when speaking to Moses to make it according to the pattern he had seen.+ 45 And our forefathers received possession of it and brought it in with Joshua into the land possessed by the nations,+ whom God drove out from before our forefathers.+ Here it remained until the days of David. 46 He found favor in the sight of God and asked for the privilege of providing a dwelling place for the God of Jacob.+ 47 But it was Sol′o·mon who built a house for him.+ 48 However, the Most High does not dwell in houses made with hands,+ just as the prophet says: 49 ‘The heaven is my throne,+ and the earth is my footstool.+ What sort of house will you build for me? Jehovah* says. Or where is my resting-place? 50 My hand made all these things, did it not?’+
51 “Obstinate men and uncircumcised in hearts and ears, you are always resisting the holy spirit; as your forefathers did, so you do.+ 52 Which one of the prophets did your forefathers not persecute?+ Yes, they killed those who announced in advance the coming of the righteous one,+ whose betrayers and murderers you have now become,+ 53 you who received the Law as transmitted by angels+ but have not kept it.”
54 Well, at hearing these things, they were infuriated* in their hearts and began to grind their teeth at him. 55 But he, being full of holy spirit, gazed into heaven and caught sight of God’s glory and of Jesus standing at God’s right hand,+ 56 and he said: “Look! I see the heavens opened up and the Son of man+ standing at God’s right hand.”+ 57 At this they cried out at the top of their voices and put their hands over their ears and rushed at him all together. 58 After throwing him outside the city, they began stoning him.+ The witnesses+ laid down their outer garments at the feet of a young man called Saul.+ 59 As they were stoning Stephen, he made this appeal: “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit.” 60 Then, kneeling down, he cried out with a strong voice: “Jehovah,* do not charge this sin against them.”+ And after saying this, he fell asleep in death.
 
 
8 Saul, for his part, approved of his murder.+
On that day great persecution arose against the congregation that was in Jerusalem; all except the apostles were scattered throughout the regions of Ju·de′a and Sa·mar′i·a.+ 2 But devout men carried Stephen away to bury him, and they made a great mourning over him. 3 Saul, though, began to ravage the congregation. He would invade one house after another, dragging out both men and women and turning them over to prison.+
4 However, those who had been scattered went through the land declaring the good news of the word.+ 5 Now Philip went down to the city* of Sa·mar′i·a+ and began to preach the Christ to them. 6 The crowds with one accord were paying attention to what Philip said while they listened and observed the signs he was performing. 7 For many had unclean spirits, and these would cry out with a loud voice and come out.+ Moreover, many who were paralyzed and lame were cured. 8 So there came to be a great deal of joy in that city.
9 Now in the city was a man named Simon, who prior to this had been practicing magical arts and amazing the nation of Sa·mar′i·a, claiming that he was somebody great. 10 All of them, from the least to the greatest, would pay attention to him and say: “This man is the Power of God, which is called Great.” 11 So they would pay attention to him because he had amazed them for quite a while by his magical arts. 12 But when they believed Philip, who was declaring the good news of the Kingdom of God+ and of the name of Jesus Christ, both men and women were getting baptized.+ 13 Simon himself also became a believer, and after being baptized, he continued with Philip;+ and he was amazed at seeing the signs and great powerful works taking place.
14 When the apostles in Jerusalem heard that Sa·mar′i·a had accepted the word of God,+ they sent Peter and John to them; 15 and these went down and prayed for them to get holy spirit.+ 16 For it had not yet come upon any one of them, but they had only been baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus.+ 17 Then they laid their hands on them,+ and they began to receive holy spirit.
18 Now when Simon saw that the spirit was given through the laying on of the hands of the apostles, he offered them money, 19 saying: “Give me this authority also, so that anyone on whom I lay my hands may receive holy spirit.” 20 But Peter said to him: “May your silver perish with you, because you thought you could acquire the free gift of God with money.+ 21 You have neither part nor share in this matter, for your heart is not straight in the sight of God. 22 So repent of this badness of yours, and supplicate Jehovah* that, if possible, the wicked intention of your heart may be forgiven you; 23 for I see you are a bitter poison* and a slave of unrighteousness.” 24 In answer Simon said to them: “Make supplication for me to Jehovah* that none of the things you have said may come upon me.”
25 Therefore, when they had given the witness thoroughly and had spoken the word of Jehovah,* they started back toward Jerusalem, and they went declaring the good news to many villages of the Sa·mar′i·tans.+
26 However, Jehovah’s* angel+ spoke to Philip, saying: “Get up and go to the south to the road that runs down from Jerusalem to Gaz′a.” (This is a desert road.) 27 With that he got up and went, and look! an E·thi·o′pi·an eunuch,* a man who had authority under Can·da′ce, queen of the E·thi·o′pi·ans, and who was in charge of all her treasure. He had gone to Jerusalem to worship,+ 28 and he was returning and was sitting in his chariot, reading aloud the prophet Isaiah. 29 So the spirit said to Philip: “Go over and approach this chariot.” 30 Philip ran alongside and heard him reading aloud Isaiah the prophet, and he said: “Do you actually know* what you are reading?” 31 He said: “Really, how could I ever do so unless someone guided me?” So he urged Philip to get on and sit down with him. 32 Now this was the passage of Scripture that he was reading: “Like a sheep he was brought to the slaughter, and like a lamb that is silent before its shearer, so he does not open his mouth.+ 33 During his humiliation, justice was taken away from him.+ Who will tell the details of his generation? Because his life is taken away from the earth.”+
34 The eunuch then said to Philip: “I beg you, about whom does the prophet say this? About himself or about some other man?” 35 Philip began to speak, and starting with this scripture, he declared to him the good news about Jesus. 36 Now as they were going along the road, they came to a body of water, and the eunuch said: “Look! Here is water; what prevents me from getting baptized?” 37* —— 38 With that he commanded the chariot to halt, and both Philip and the eunuch went down into the water, and he baptized him. 39 When they came up out of the water, Jehovah’s* spirit quickly led Philip away, and the eunuch did not see him anymore, but he went on his way rejoicing. 40 Philip, however, found himself in Ash′dod, and he went through the territory and kept on declaring the good news to all the cities until he got to Caes·a·re′a.+
 
 
9 But Saul, still breathing threat and murder against the disciples of the Lord,+ went to the high priest 2 and asked him for letters to the synagogues in Damascus, so that he might bring bound to Jerusalem any whom he found who belonged to The Way,+ both men and women.
3 Now as he was traveling and getting near Damascus, suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him,+ 4 and he fell to the ground and heard a voice say to him: “Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?” 5 He asked: “Who are you, Lord?” He said: “I am Jesus,+ whom you are persecuting.+ 6 But get up and go into the city, and you will be told what you must do.” 7 Now the men who were traveling with him stood speechless, hearing, indeed, the sound of a voice but seeing no one.+ 8 Saul then got up from the ground, and though his eyes were open, he could see nothing. So they led him by the hand and brought him into Damascus. 9 And for three days he did not see anything,+ and he neither ate nor drank.
10 There was a disciple named An·a·ni′as+ in Damascus, and the Lord said to him in a vision: “An·a·ni′as!” He said: “Here I am, Lord.” 11 The Lord said to him: “Get up, go to the street called Straight, and look for a man named Saul, from Tarsus,+ at the house of Judas. For look! he is praying, 12 and in a vision he has seen a man named An·a·ni′as come in and lay his hands on him so that he may recover sight.”+ 13 But An·a·ni′as answered: “Lord, I have heard from many about this man, about all the harm he did to your holy ones in Jerusalem. 14 And here he has authority from the chief priests to arrest* all those calling on your name.”+ 15 But the Lord said to him: “Go! because this man is a chosen vessel to me+ to bear my name to the nations+ as well as to kings+ and the sons of Israel. 16 For I will show him plainly how many things he must suffer for my name.”+
17 So An·a·ni′as went and entered the house, and he laid his hands on him and said: “Saul, brother, the Lord Jesus, who appeared to you on the road along which you were coming, has sent me so that you may recover sight and be filled with holy spirit.”+ 18 And immediately, what looked like scales fell from his eyes, and he recovered his sight. He then got up and was baptized, 19 and he ate some food and gained strength.
He stayed for some days with the disciples in Damascus,+ 20 and immediately in the synagogues he began to preach about Jesus, that this one is the Son of God. 21 But all those hearing him were astonished and were saying: “Is this not the man who ravaged those in Jerusalem who call on this name?+ Did he not come here for the purpose of arresting them and taking them* to the chief priests?”+ 22 But Saul kept on acquiring more and more power and was confounding the Jews who lived in Damascus, as he proved logically that this is the Christ.+
23 Now when many days had passed, the Jews plotted together to do away with him.+ 24 However, their plot against Saul became known to him. They were also watching the gates closely both day and night in order to do away with him. 25 So his disciples took him and let him down by night through an opening in the wall, lowering him in a basket.+
26 On arriving in Jerusalem,+ he made efforts to join the disciples, but they were all afraid of him, because they did not believe he was a disciple. 27 So Bar′na·bas+ came to his aid and led him to the apostles, and he told them in detail how on the road he had seen the Lord,+ and that he had spoken to him, and how in Damascus he had spoken boldly in the name of Jesus.+ 28 So he remained with them, moving about freely in* Jerusalem, speaking boldly in the name of the Lord. 29 He was talking and disputing with the Greek-speaking Jews, but these made attempts to do away with him.+ 30 When the brothers found out about this, they brought him down to Caes·a·re′a and sent him off to Tarsus.+
31 Then, indeed, the congregation throughout the whole of Ju·de′a and Gal′i·lee and Sa·mar′i·a+ entered into a period of peace, being built up; and as it walked in the fear of Jehovah* and in the comfort of the holy spirit,+ it kept on multiplying.
32 Now as Peter was traveling through all the region, he came down also to the holy ones who lived in Lyd′da.+ 33 There he found a man named Ae·ne′as, who had been lying flat on his bed for eight years, for he was paralyzed. 34 Peter said to him: “Ae·ne′as, Jesus Christ heals you.+ Rise and make up your bed.”+ And he got up immediately. 35 When all those living in Lyd′da and the Plain of Shar′on saw him, they turned to the Lord.
36 Now there was in Jop′pa a disciple named Tab′i·tha, which means, when translated, “Dor′cas.”* She abounded in good deeds and gifts of mercy that she was making. 37 But in those days she fell sick and died. So they bathed her and laid her in an upper room. 38 Since Lyd′da was near Jop′pa, when the disciples heard that Peter was in that city, they sent two men to him to urge him: “Please come to us without delay.” 39 At that Peter got up and went with them. And when he arrived, they led him up into the upper room; and all the widows presented themselves to him, weeping and showing many garments and robes* that Dor′cas had made while she was with them. 40 Peter then put everyone outside,+ and kneeling down, he prayed. Then turning toward the body, he said: “Tab′i·tha, rise!” She opened her eyes, and as she caught sight of Peter, she sat up.+ 41 Giving her his hand, he raised her up, and he called the holy ones and the widows and presented her alive.+ 42 This became known throughout all Jop′pa, and many became believers in the Lord.+ 43 He remained for quite a few days in Jop′pa with a tanner named Simon.+
 
 
10 Now there was a man in Caes·a·re′a named Cornelius, an army officer* in what was called the Italian unit.* 2 He was a devout man who feared God together with all his household, and he made many gifts of mercy to the people and made supplication to God continually. 3 About the ninth hour+ of the day,* he saw plainly in a vision an angel of God come in to him and say: “Cornelius!” 4 Cornelius stared at him, terrified, and asked: “What is it, Lord?” He said to him: “Your prayers and gifts of mercy have ascended as a remembrance before God.+ 5 So now send men to Jop′pa and summon a man named Simon who is called Peter. 6 This man is staying as a guest with* Simon, a tanner who has a house by the sea.” 7 As soon as the angel who spoke to him left, he called two of his servants and a devout soldier from among those who were his attendants, 8 and he related everything to them and sent them to Jop′pa.
9 The next day as they were continuing on their journey and were approaching the city, Peter went up to the housetop about the sixth hour* to pray. 10 But he became very hungry and wanted to eat. While they were preparing the meal, he fell into a trance+ 11 and saw heaven opened and something* descending like a great linen sheet being let down by its four corners on the earth; 12 and in it were all sorts of four-footed animals and reptiles* of the earth and birds of heaven. 13 Then a voice said to him: “Get up, Peter, slaughter and eat!” 14 But Peter said: “Not at all, Lord, because I have never eaten anything defiled and unclean.”+ 15 And the voice spoke again to him, the second time: “Stop calling defiled the things God has cleansed.” 16 This happened a third time, and immediately it* was taken up into heaven.
17 While Peter was still perplexed about what the vision he had seen could mean, just then the men sent by Cornelius asked where Simon’s house was and stood there at the gate.+ 18 They called out and inquired whether Simon who was called Peter was a guest there. 19 As Peter was still pondering over the vision, the spirit+ said: “Look! Three men are asking for you. 20 So get up, go downstairs and go with them, not doubting at all, because I have sent them.” 21 Then Peter went downstairs to the men and said: “Here I am, the one you are looking for. Why are you here?” 22 They said: “Cornelius,+ an army officer, a righteous and God-fearing man who is well-reported-on by the whole nation of the Jews, was given divine instructions by a holy angel to send for you to come to his house and to hear what you have to say.” 23 So he invited them in and had them stay as his guests.
The next day he got up and went off with them, and some of the brothers from Jop′pa went with him. 24 The following day he entered into Caes·a·re′a. Cornelius, of course, was expecting them and had called together his relatives and close friends. 25 As Peter entered, Cornelius met him, fell down at his feet, and did obeisance* to him. 26 But Peter lifted him up, saying: “Rise; I too am just a man.”+ 27 As he conversed with him, he went in and found many people assembled. 28 He said to them: “You well know how unlawful it is for a Jew to associate with or approach a man of another race,+ and yet God has shown me that I should call no man defiled or unclean.+ 29 So I came, really without objection, when I was sent for. Therefore, I ask you why you sent for me.”
30 Then Cornelius said: “Four days ago counting from this hour, I was praying in my house at the ninth hour;* just then a man in bright clothing stood in front of me 31 and said: ‘Cornelius, your prayer has been favorably heard, and your gifts of mercy have been remembered before God. 32 Therefore, send to Jop′pa and call for Simon who is called Peter. This man is a guest in the house of Simon, a tanner, by the sea.’+ 33 I then sent for you at once, and you were kind enough to come here. So now we are all present before God to hear all the things you have been commanded by Jehovah* to say.”
34 At this Peter began to speak, and he said: “Now I truly understand that God is not partial,+ 35 but in every nation the man who fears him and does what is right is acceptable to him.+ 36 He sent out the word to the sons of Israel to declare to them the good news of peace+ through Jesus Christ—this one is Lord of all.+ 37 You know the subject that was talked about throughout all Ju·de′a, starting from Gal′i·lee+ after the baptism that John preached: 38 about Jesus who was from Naz′a·reth, how God anointed him with holy spirit+ and power, and he went through the land doing good and healing all those oppressed by the Devil,+ because God was with him.+ 39 And we are witnesses of all the things he did both in the country of the Jews and in Jerusalem; but they did away with him by hanging him on a stake.* 40 God raised this one up on the third day+ and allowed him to become manifest,* 41 not to all the people, but to witnesses appointed beforehand by God, to us, who ate and drank with him after his rising from the dead.+ 42 Also, he ordered us to preach to the people and to give a thorough witness+ that this is the one decreed by God to be judge of the living and the dead.+ 43 To him all the prophets bear witness,+ that everyone putting faith in him receives forgiveness of sins through his name.”+
44 While Peter was still speaking about these matters, the holy spirit came upon all those hearing the word.+ 45 And the circumcised believers* who had come with Peter were amazed, because the free gift of the holy spirit was being poured out also on people of the nations. 46 For they heard them speaking in foreign languages* and magnifying God.+ Then Peter responded: 47 “Can anyone deny water to prevent these from being baptized+ who have received the holy spirit just as we have?” 48 With that he commanded them to be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ.+ Then they requested him to stay for some days.

Examining how darwinism is taught.








Monday 2 June 2014

On Darwin and Nietzche.








On evolution's status as a scientific theory.

Evolution is not a Scientific Theory



 
Differentiating a myth from science is not always easy. Karl Popper says, “Historically speaking all—or very nearly all—scientific theories originate from myths … a myth may contain important anticipations of scientific theories.” The atomic theory of Leucippus and Democritus (c. 400 BC) is an example—as is the Genesis 1:1 creation myth (which presaged the big bang theory). But Aristotle’s theory of motion, geocentricity, and most other early myths did not make the “cut” as twentieth-century science. What’s the difference?
Science is usually defined by a process called the scientific method. Typically, this includes an observation about a natural phenomenon, a hypothesis formulated to explain it, and a test performed via a controlled experiment. If the test results are not as expected, the hypothesis may be revised and retested (feedback).
The key to the testing process is falsifiability. A positive test result means a hypothesis is plausible, but a negative test result proves it false. Hence, the proper test of a hypothesis is to make a prediction and devise a test such that at least one outcome proves the theory false. Scientists often want to verify pet theories; but Popper says, “Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it, or to refute it… . It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verifications, for nearly every theory—if we look for confirmations. Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions… . The criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability.” (emphasis original)
As an example, Einstein’s general relativity made the risky prediction that the gravity of the sun would bend light from distant stars. The theory was confirmed when observation determined the prediction was true; it would have been falsified if the prediction had failed.
In the case of a “historical science,” such as the theory of evolution, it is impossible to recreate conditions in the “beginning” and perform a controlled experiment; yet a falsifiable test is still possible. For example, the “big bang” hypothesis of cosmology made the risky prediction of cosmic radiation bombarding the earth. In 1965, this prediction was found to be true, the big bang was accepted as plausible, and the then-prevailing theory that the universe was eternal was falsified. If microwave radiation did not exist, the big bang theory would have been falsified.
The fundamental problem with evolution as a scientific theory is that it is neither predictive nor falsifiable. Embryologist and geneticist C. H. Waddington says, “The theory of evolution is unfalsifiable… If an animal evolves one way, biologists have a perfectly good explanation; but if it evolves some other way, they have an equally good explanation… . The theory is not … a predictive theory as to what must happen.”1
Information theorist Mark Ludwig elaborates, “Darwin’s hypothesis … has the character of unfalsifiable philosophy: it can explain anything and predicts practically nothing… . Darwinism … requires belief… . It has become the scientist’s paradigm, and he is rarely able to admit that it is fragile and charged with philosophy.”2
The neo-Darwinian theory of evolution is unfalsifiable because it relies on random, unpredictable mutations. Only predictable randomness, like radioactive decay, is a valid scientific phenomenon. Murray Eden of Massachusetts Institute of Technology illustrates the difference using physical chemistry: “It is accepted that the law of mass action is derivable from the assumption of random collisions between reactive molecules, but the explanation of a chemical reaction in which molecules A and B become C is to be sought … and not in a random rearrangement of the atoms of A and B.”3
Yet this is the argument of neo-Darwinianism—an argument no different from the “god of the gaps” argument. As evolutionary zoologist Pierre-P. Grassé says, “Chance becomes a sort of providence, which … is secretly worshipped.”4
It’s hard to dispute Henry Morris’ charge that the litany of evolutionary biologists is: “We know evolution is true, even though we don’t know how it works and have never seen it happen.”5
Science is not static; improvements in technology continually make it possible to test and falsify theories that were earlier untestable, such as the phlogiston theory of chemistry and the luminiferous aether theory of physics. So it is with the theory of evolution. It was barely possible to see cell structure under a primitive microscope in Darwin’s time, and DNA had not yet been discovered when the neo-Darwinian synthesis was developed in the 1940s. Technology and computing power have grown dramatically and, although unpredictable mutations cannot be tested, other problematic ramifications of the theory can be.
Nevertheless, it seems difficulties lead only to modifications of the theory, some of which are often speculative. This pattern led astrophysicist and Nobel laureate Sir Fred Hoyle to comment, “Be suspicious of a theory if more and more hypotheses are needed to support it as new facts become available.”6
But old theories die hard. The eighteenth-century scientific giant Joseph Priestley refused to accept falsification of the phlogiston theory; he kept reinterpreting data to escape its refutation until he died. The myth-like character of the theory of evolution makes it especially hard to reject because evolution defines the naturalistic worldview. Evolution is assumed—whether justified or not—because any challenge to evolution undercuts this worldview.
Grassé says, “Paleontologists … assume that the Darwinian hypothesis is correct [and] interpret fossil data according to it.” But he believes the “duty [of biologists] is to destroy the myth of evolution … to think about the weaknesses of the interpretations and extrapolations that theoreticians put forward or lay down as established truths.”8
Hence the theory of evolution is more accurately described as myth than as science—particularly because of its unfalsifiability. The next two articles will consider some of the difficulties with the theory, revealed by modern science.

Wednesday 28 May 2014

David albert on Lawrence krauss' claim that something can emerge from nothing.

On the Origin of Everything

‘A Universe From Nothing,’ by Lawrence M. Krauss

 
 
 
Lawrence M. Krauss, a well-known cosmologist and prolific popular-science writer, apparently means to announce to the world, in this new book, that the laws of quantum mechanics have in them the makings of a thoroughly scientific and adamantly secular explanation of why there is something rather than nothing. Period. Case closed. End of story. I kid you not. Look at the subtitle. Look at how Richard Dawkins sums it up in his afterword: “Even the last remaining trump card of the theologian, ‘Why is there something rather than nothing?,’ shrivels up before your eyes as you read these pages. If ‘On the Origin of Species’ was biology’s deadliest blow to super­naturalism, we may come to see ‘A Universe From Nothing’ as the equivalent from cosmology. The title means exactly what it says. And what it says is ­devastating.”

A UNIVERSE FROM NOTHING

Why There Is Something Rather Than Nothing
By Lawrence M. Krauss
Illustrated. 202 pp. Free Press. $24.99.

 

 
Well, let’s see. There are lots of different sorts of conversations one might want to have about a claim like that: conversations, say, about what it is to explain something, and about what it is to be a law of nature, and about what it is to be a physical thing. But since the space I have is limited, let me put those niceties aside and try to be quick, and crude, and concrete.
Where, for starters, are the laws of quantum mechanics themselves supposed to have come from? Krauss is more or less upfront, as it turns out, about not having a clue about that. He acknowledges (albeit in a parenthesis, and just a few pages before the end of the book) that every­thing he has been talking about simply takes the basic principles of quantum mechanics for granted. “I have no idea if this notion can be usefully dispensed with,” he writes, “or at least I don’t know of any productive work in this regard.” And what if he did know of some productive work in that regard? What if he were in a position to announce, for instance, that the truth of the quantum-mechanical laws can be traced back to the fact that the world has some other, deeper property X? Wouldn’t we still be in a position to ask why X rather than Y? And is there a last such question? Is there some point at which the possibility of asking any further such questions somehow definitively comes to an end? How would that work? What would that be like?
Never mind. Forget where the laws came from. Have a look instead at what they say. It happens that ever since the scientific revolution of the 17th century, what physics has given us in the way of candidates for the fundamental laws of nature have as a general rule simply taken it for granted that there is, at the bottom of everything, some basic, elementary, eternally persisting, concrete, physical stuff. Newton, for example, took that elementary stuff to consist of material particles. And physicists at the end of the 19th century took that elementary stuff to consist of both material particles and electro­magnetic fields. And so on. And what the fundamental laws of nature are about, and all the fundamental laws of nature are about, and all there is for the fundamental laws of nature to be about, insofar as physics has ever been able to imagine, is how that elementary stuff is arranged. The fundamental laws of nature generally take the form of rules concerning which arrangements of that stuff are physically possible and which aren’t, or rules connecting the arrangements of that elementary stuff at later times to its arrangement at earlier times, or something like that. But the laws have no bearing whatsoever on questions of where the elementary stuff came from, or of why the world should have consisted of the particular elementary stuff it does, as opposed to something else, or to nothing at all.
The fundamental physical laws that Krauss is talking about in “A Universe From Nothing” — the laws of relativistic quantum field theories — are no exception to this. The particular, eternally persisting, elementary physical stuff of the world, according to the standard presentations of relativistic quantum field theories, consists (unsurprisingly) of relativistic quantum fields. And the fundamental laws of this theory take the form of rules concerning which arrangements of those fields are physically possible and which aren’t, and rules connecting the arrangements of those fields at later times to their arrangements at earlier times, and so on — and they have nothing whatsoever to say on the subject of where those fields came from, or of why the world should have consisted of the particular kinds of fields it does, or of why it should have consisted of fields at all, or of why there should have been a world in the first place. Period. Case closed. End of story.
What on earth, then, can Krauss have been thinking? Well, there is, as it happens, an interesting difference between relativistic quantum field theories and every previous serious candidate for a fundamental physical theory of the world. Every previous such theory counted material particles among the concrete, fundamental, eternally persisting elementary physical stuff of the world — and relativistic quantum field theories, interestingly and emphatically and unprecedentedly, do not. According to relativistic quantum field theories, particles are to be understood, rather, as specific arrangements of the fields. Certain ­arrangements of the fields, for instance, correspond to there being 14 particles in the universe, and certain other arrangements correspond to there being 276 particles, and certain other arrangements correspond to there being an infinite number of particles, and certain other arrangements correspond to there being no particles at all. And those last arrangements are referred to, in the jargon of quantum field theories, for obvious reasons, as “vacuum” states. Krauss seems to be thinking that these vacuum states amount to the relativistic-­quantum-field-theoretical version of there not being any physical stuff at all. And he has an argument — or thinks he does — that the laws of relativistic quantum field theories entail that vacuum states are unstable. And that, in a nutshell, is the account he proposes of why there should be something rather than nothing.
But that’s just not right. Relativistic-quantum-field-theoretical vacuum states — no less than giraffes or refrigerators or solar systems — are particular arrangements of elementary physical stuff. The true relativistic-quantum-field-­theoretical equivalent to there not being any physical stuff at all isn’t this or that particular arrangement of the fields — what it is (obviously, and ineluctably, and on the contrary) is the simple absence of the fields! The fact that some arrangements of fields happen to correspond to the existence of particles and some don’t is not a whit more mysterious than the fact that some of the possible arrangements of my fingers happen to correspond to the existence of a fist and some don’t. And the fact that particles can pop in and out of existence, over time, as those fields rearrange themselves, is not a whit more mysterious than the fact that fists can pop in and out of existence, over time, as my fingers rearrange themselves. And none of these poppings — if you look at them aright — amount to anything even remotely in the neighborhood of a creation from nothing.
Krauss, mind you, has heard this kind of talk before, and it makes him crazy. A century ago, it seems to him, nobody would have made so much as a peep about referring to a stretch of space without any material particles in it as “nothing.” And now that he and his colleagues think they have a way of showing how everything there is could imaginably have emerged from a stretch of space like that, the nut cases are moving the goal posts. He complains that “some philosophers and many theologians define and redefine ‘nothing’ as not being any of the versions of nothing that scientists currently describe,” and that “now, I am told by religious critics that I cannot refer to empty space as ‘nothing,’ but rather as a ‘quantum vacuum,’ to distinguish it from the philosopher’s or theologian’s idealized ‘nothing,’ ” and he does a good deal of railing about “the intellectual bankruptcy of much of theology and some of modern philosophy.” But all there is to say about this, as far as I can see, is that Krauss is dead wrong and his religious and philosophical critics are absolutely right. Who cares what we would or would not have made a peep about a hundred years ago? We were wrong a hundred years ago. We know more now. And if what we formerly took for nothing turns out, on closer examination, to have the makings of protons and neutrons and tables and chairs and planets and solar systems and galaxies and universes in it, then it wasn’t nothing, and it couldn’t have been nothing, in the first place. And the history of science — if we understand it correctly — gives us no hint of how it might be possible to imagine otherwise.
And I guess it ought to be mentioned, quite apart from the question of whether anything Krauss says turns out to be true or false, that the whole business of approaching the struggle with religion as if it were a card game, or a horse race, or some kind of battle of wits, just feels all wrong — or it does, at any rate, to me. When I was growing up, where I was growing up, there was a critique of religion according to which religion was cruel, and a lie, and a mechanism of enslavement, and something full of loathing and contempt for every­thing essentially human. Maybe that was true and maybe it wasn’t, but it had to do with important things — it had to do, that is, with history, and with suffering, and with the hope of a better world — and it seems like a pity, and more than a pity, and worse than a pity, with all that in the back of one’s head, to think that all that gets offered to us now, by guys like these, in books like this, is the pale, small, silly, nerdy accusation that religion is, I don’t know, dumb.
David Albert is a professor of philosophy at Columbia and the author of “Quantum Mechanics and Experience.”